<p>Skellig Michael , also called Great Skellig , is the larger of the two Skellig Islands, 11.6 km west of the Iveragh Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland. A Gaelic Christian monastery was founded on the island at some point between the 6th and 8th century and remained continuously occupied until it was abandoned in the late 12th century. The remains of the monastery, and most of the island, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-monastic</h3><br>
<p>Except for mating birds, Skellig Michael was uninhabited before its monastery was founded. Folklore holds that Ir, son of Míl Espáine, was buried on the island, and a text from the 8th or 9th century states that Duagh, King of West Munster, fled to "Scellecc" after a feud with the Kings of Cashel, although it is not known whether these events actually took place.</p><br>
<h3>Monastic</h3><br>
<p>The monastery&#39;s exact date of foundation is not known. The first definite reference to monastic activity on the island is a record of the death of "Suibhini of Skelig" dating from the 8th century; however, Saint Fionán is claimed to have founded the monastery in the 6th century.</p><br>
<p>The monastic site on the island is on a terraced shelf 600 ft above sea level, and developed between the sixth and eighth centuries. It contains six clochán-type beehive cells, two oratories as well as a number of stone crosses and slabs. It also contains a later medieval church. The cells and oratories are all of dry-built corbel construction. A system for collecting and purifying water in cisterns was developed. It has been estimated that no more than twelve monks and an abbot lived here at any one time. A hermitage is on the south peak.</p><br>
<p>The diet of monks living on the North Atlantic islands was somewhat different from that of those who lived on the mainland. With less arable land available to grow grain, vegetable gardens were an important part of monastic life. Of necessity, fish and the meat and eggs of birds nesting on the islands were staples.</p><br>
<p>The "Annals of Inisfallen" record a Viking attack in 823. The site had been dedicated to Saint Michael by at least 1044 (when the death of "Aedh of Scelic-Mhichí" is recorded). However, this dedication may have occurred as early as 950, around which time a new church was added to the monastery (typically done to celebrate a consecration) and called Saint Michael&#39;s Church.</p><br>
<p>The monastery remained continuously occupied until the 12th or 13th century. During this time, the climate around Skellig Michael became colder and more prone to storms, and this, along with changes to the structure of the Irish Church, prompted the community to abandon the island and move to the abbey in Ballinskelligs.</p><br>
<h3>Post-monastic</h3><br>
<p>Skellig Michael remained in the possession of the Catholic Canons Regular until the dissolution of the Ballinskelligs abbey during the Protestant Reformation by Elizabeth I in 1578. Ownership was then passed to the Butler family with whom it stayed until the early 1820s, when the Corporation for Preserving and Improving the Port of Dublin (the predecessor to the Commissioners of Irish Lights) purchased the island from John Butler of Waterville in a compulsory purchase order. The Corporation constructed two lighthouses on the Atlantic side of the island, and associated living quarters, all of which was completed by 1826. The Office of Public Works took the remains of the monastery into guardianship in 1880, and repaired certain collapsed structures, before buying the island (with the exception of the lighthouses and associated structures) from the Commissioners of Irish Lights.</p><br>
<h4>World Heritage listing</h4><br>
<p>Skellig Michael was made a World Heritage Site in 1996, at the 20th Session of the World Heritage Committee in Mérida, Mexico. After being nominated for inclusion on 28 October 1995, an evaluation of the site by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (an advisory body of the World Heritage Committee), recommended that the island be inscribed on the basis of criteria (iii) and (iv) of the World Heritage Lists selection criteria, which relate the cultural significance of a site. The Committee approved this recommendation, describing Skellig Michael as of "exceptional universal value", and a "unique example of an early religious settlement", while also noting the sites preservation as a result of its "remarkable environment", and its ability to illustrate "as no other site can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterizing much of North Africa, the Near East and Europe".</p><br>
<h4>Special Protection Area</h4><br>
<p>In 2010, the Minister for Housing, Planning and Local Government designated Skellig Michael as a Special Protection Area to protect its colonies of puffins, Manx shearwaters and storm petrels.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h2>Access and activities</h2><br>
<p>Each year at least four boat licences are granted to tour operators who run trips to Skellig Michael during the summer season (May to October, inclusive), weather permitting. For safety reasons, because the steps up to the monastery are rocky, steep, and old, climbs are not permitted during very wet or windy weather. There are dive sites immediately around the rock.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>The 1969 BBC documentary Civilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark featured a short segment on the use of Skellig Michael in the first episode.</p><br>
<p>Skellig Michael is featured in the second episode of the BBC documentary series A History of Christianity.</p><br>
<p>The island served as a location for the final scene in Heart of Glass by Werner Herzog.</p><br>
<p>The island served as a filming location for Star Wars: The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi. This caused concerns because of the island&#39;s Special Protection Area status.</p><br>
<p>Loreena McKennitt&#39;s song "Skellig" on her "The Book of Secrets" album relates the dying words of a monk from a monastery that existed during the 6th-12th centuries on the island Skellig Michael (Great Skellig).</p><br>
<p>The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula. The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast, Queen Maud Land. To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea. Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent, massive ice shelf field, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf . The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina,  and Britain , and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile . At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across, and its area is around 2.8 e6km2.</p><br>
<p>Various ice shelves, including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, fringe the Weddell sea. Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula, which formerly covered roughly 3,900 square miles of the Weddell Sea, had completely disappeared by 2002. Whilst a dramatic event, the area that disappeared was far smaller than the total area of ice shelf that remains.</p><br>
<p>The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea. Dutch researchers from the German Alfred Wegener Institute, on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of 262 ft on 13 October 1986, ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water.</p><br>
<p>In his 1950 book The White Continent, historian Thomas R. Henry writes:</p><br>
<p>He continues for an entire chapter, relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the seas icy waters, the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949, and treacherous "flash freezes" that left ships, such as Ernest Shackletons Endurance, at the mercy of the ice floes.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The sea is named after the Scottish sailor James Weddell, who entered the sea in 1823 and originally named it after King George IV; it was renamed in Weddells honour in 1900. Also in 1823, the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell claimed to have seen land some 10–12° east of the seas actual eastern boundary. He called this New South Greenland, but its existence was disproved when the sea was more fully explored in the early 20th century. Weddell got as far south as 74°S; the furthest southern penetration since Weddell but before the modern era was made by the Scot William Speirs Bruce in 1903.</p><br>
<p>The Weddell Sea is an important area of deep water mass formation through cabbeling, the main driving force of the thermohaline circulation. Deep water masses are also formed through cabbeling in the North Atlantic and are caused by differences in temperature and salinity of the water. In the Weddell sea this is brought about mainly by brine exclusion and wind cooling.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1823, British sailor James Weddell discovered the Weddell Sea. Otto Nordenskiöld, leader of the 1901-1904 Swedish Antarctic Expedition, spent a winter at Snow Hill with a team of four men when the relief ship became beset in ice and was finally crushed. The crew managed to reach Paulet Island where they wintered in a primitive hut. Nordenskiöld and the others finally were picked up by the Argentine Navy at Hope Bay. All but one survived. The Antarctic Sound is named after the expedition ship of Otto Nordenskiöld. The sound that separates the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula from Dundee Island is also named “Iceberg Alley”, because of the huge icebergs that are often seen here. Snowhill Island, located east of the Antarctic Peninsula. It is almost completely snow-capped, hence its name. Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld built a cabin on the island in 1902 where Nordenskiöld and three members of the expedition had to spend two winters. In 1915, Ernest Shackleton’s ship, the Endurance got trapped and was crushed by ice in this sea. After 15 months on the pack-ice Shackleton and his men managed to reach Elephant Island and finally safely returned.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>As with other neighboring parts of Antarctica the Weddell Sea shares a common geological history with southernmost South America. In southern Patagonia at the onset of the Andean orogeny in the Jurassic extensional tectonics created the Rocas Verdes Basin, a back-arc basin whose surviving southeastward extension forms the Weddell Sea. In the Late Cretaceous the tectonic regime of Rocas Verdes Basin changed leading to its transformation into a compressional foreland basin –the Magallanes Basin– in the Cenozoic. While this happened in South America the Weddell Sea part of the basin escaped compressional tectonics and remained an oceanic basin.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<p>The Weddell Sea is one of few locations in the World Ocean where deep and bottom water masses are formed to contribute to the global thermohaline circulation. The characteristics of exported water masses result from complex interactions between surface forcing, significantly modified by sea ice processes, ocean dynamics at the continental shelf break, and slope and sub-ice shelf water mass transformation. Circulation in the western Weddell Sea is dominated by a northward flowing current. This northward current is the western section of a primarily wind-driven, cyclonic gyre called the Weddell Gyre. This northward flow serves as the primary force of departure of water from the Weddell Sea, a major site of ocean water modification and deep water formation, to the remainder of the World Ocean. The Weddell Gyre is a cold, low salinity surface layer separated by a thin, weak pycnocline from a thick layer of relatively warm and salty water referred to as Weddell Deep Water (WDW), and a cold bottom layer.</p><br>
<p>Circulation in the Weddell Sea has proven difficult to quantify. Geopotential surface heights above the 1000 dB level, computed using historical data, show only very weak surface currents. Similar computations carried out using more closely spaced data also showed small currents. Closure of the gyre circulation was assumed to be driven by Sverdrup transport. The Weddell Sea is a major site for deep water formation. Thus, in addition to a wind-driven gyre component of the boundary current, a deeper circulation whose dynamics and transports reflect an input of dense water in the southern and southwestern Weddell Sea are expected. Available data does not lend to the quantification of the volume transports associated with this western boundary region, or to the determination of deep convective circulation along the western boundary.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The predominance of strong surface winds parallel to the narrow and tall mountain range of the Antarctic Peninsula is a remarkable feature of weather and climate in the area of the western Weddell Sea. The winds carry cold air toward lower latitudes and turn into southwesterlies farther north. These winds are of interest not only because of their effect on the temperature regime east of the peninsula but also because they force the drift of ice northeastward into the South Atlantic Ocean as the last branch of the clockwise circulation in the lower layers of the atmosphere along the coasts of the Weddell Sea. The sharp contrast between the wind, temperature, and ice conditions of the two sides of the Antarctic Peninsula has been well known for many years.</p><br>
<p>Strong surface winds directed equatorward along the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula can appear in two different types of synoptic-meteorological situations: (1) an intense cyclone over the central Weddell Sea, (2) a broad east to west flow of stable cold air in the lowest 500- to 1000-m layer of the atmosphere over the central and/or southern Weddell Sea toward the peninsula. These conditions lead to cold air piling up on the east edge of the mountains. This process leads to the formation of a high-pressure ridge over the peninsula (mainly east of the peak) and, therefore, a deflection of the originally westward current of air to the right, along the mountain wall.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Weddell Sea is abundant with whales and seals. Characteristic fauna of the sea include the Weddell seal and killer whales, humpback whales, minke whales, leopard seals, and crabeater seals are frequently seen during Weddell Sea voyages.</p><br>
<p>The Adélie penguin is the dominant penguin species in this remote area because of their adaptation to the harsh environment. A colony of more than a 100,000 pairs of Adélies can be found on volcanic Paulet Island.</p><br>
<p>Only a couple of years ago an emperor penguin colony was discovered just south of Snowhill Island in the Weddell Sea. As the Weddell Sea is often clogged with heavy pack-ice, strong ice-class vessels equipped with helicopters are required to reach this colony.</p><br>
<p>The Ozark Plateaus, simply referred to as the Ozarks, are a mountainous region in the USA states of Arkansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The Ozarks cover a significant portion of northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, extending from Interstate 40 in Arkansas to the suburbs of St. Louis. A portion of the Ozarks extends into northeastern Oklahoma and extreme southeastern Kansas.</p><br>
<p>Though often referred to as the Ozark Mountains, the region is technically the Ozark Plateaus. There are, however, two mountain ranges within the Ozarks: the Boston Mountains of Arkansas and St. Francois Mountains of Missouri. Buffalo Lookout, the highest point in the Ozarks, is located in the Boston Mountains. Geologically, the area is a broad dome with the exposed core in the St. Francois Mountains. The Ozarks cover nearly 47,000 square miles, making it the most extensive highland region between the Appalachians and Rockies. Together with the Ouachita Mountains, the area is known as the USA Interior Highlands.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Ozarks is a toponym believed to be derived as a linguistic corruption of the French abbreviation aux Arcs (short for aux Arkansas, or "of/at Arkansas" in English) in the decades prior to the French and Indian War, aux Arkansas originally referring to the trading post at Arkansas Post, located in wooded Arkansas Delta lowland area above the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi River. "Arkansas" seems to be the French version of what the Illinois tribe (further up the Mississippi) called the Quapaw, who lived in eastern Arkansas in the area of the trading post. Eventually, the term came to refer to all Ozark Plateau drainage into the Arkansas and Missouri Rivers.</p><br>
<p>An alternative origin for the name "Ozark" involves the French term aux arcs. In the later 17th and early 18th centuries, French cartographers mapped the Arkansas and Mississippi Rivers. The large, top most arc or bend in this part of the Arkansas River was referred to as the aux arcs—the top or most northern arc in the whole of the lower Arkansas. Travelers arriving by boat would disembark at this top bend of the river to explore the Ozarks; the town of Ozark, Arkansas is located on the north bank at this location.</p><br>
<p>Other possible derivations include aux arcs meaning "of the arches" in reference to the dozens of natural bridges formed by erosion and collapsed caves in the Ozark region. These include Clifty Hollow Natural Bridge (actually a series of arches) in Missouri, and Alum Cove in the Ozark – St. Francis National Forest. It is even suggested aux arcs is an abbreviation of aux arcs-en-ciel, French for "toward the rainbows" which are a common sight in the mountainous regions. After the Louisiana Purchase, American travelers in the region referred to various features of the upland areas using the term Ozark, such as Ozark Mountains and Ozark forests. By the early 20th century, the Ozarks had become a generic term.</p><br>
<h2>Physiographic subregions</h2><br>
<p>The Ozarks consist of five physiographic subregions:</p><br>
<p>the Boston Mountains of north Arkansas and Cookson Hills of east Oklahoma</p><br>
<p>the Springfield Plateau of southwest Missouri, northeast Oklahoma, and northwest Arkansas and including Springfield and Joplin in Missouri, Tahlequah in Oklahoma and Fayetteville and Harrison in Arkansas</p><br>
<p>the White River Hills along the White River including Branson, Mountain Home to Batesville</p><br>
<p>the Salem Plateau or Central Plateau which includes a broad band across south central Missouri and north central Arkansas including the Lebanon, Salem and West Plains areas</p><br>
<p>the Courtois Hills of southeastern Missouri</p><br>
<p>the Osage-Gasconade Hills around the Lake of the Ozarks</p><br>
<p>the Saint Francois Mountains</p><br>
<p>the Missouri River and Mississippi River border areas along the eastern and northeastern flanks.</p><br>
<p>Karst features such as springs, losing streams, sinkholes and caves are common in the limestones of the Springfield Plateau and abundant in the dolostone bedrock of the Salem Plateau and Boston Mountains. Missouri is known as "The Cave State" with over 6000 recorded caves; the majority of these caves are found in the Ozark counties. The Ozark Plateaus aquifer system affects groundwater movement in all areas except the igneous core of the St. Francois Mountains. Geographic features include limestone and dolomite glades, which are rocky, desert-like area on hilltops. Kept open by periodic fires that limit growth of grasses and forbs in shallow soil, glades are home to collared lizards, tarantulas, scorpions, cacti and other species more typical of the desert southwest.</p><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains contain the highest elevations of the Ozarks with peaks over 2,500 ft and form some of the greatest relief of any formation between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.The Ouachita Mountains to the south rise a few hundred feet higher, but are not geographically associated with the Ozarks. The Boston Mountains portion of the Ozarks extends north of the Arkansas River Valley 20 to 35 mi and is approximately 200 mi and are bordered by the Springfield and Salem Plateau to the north of the White River. Summits can reach elevations of just over 2,560 feet (780 m) with valleys 500 to 1,550 feet (472 m) deep (150 m to 450 m). Turner Ward Knob is the highest named peak. Located in western Newton County, Arkansas, its elevation is 2,463 feet (751 m). Nearby, five unnamed peaks have elevations at or slightly above 2,560 feet (780 m). Drainage is primarily to the White River, with the exception of the Illinois River, although there also is considerable drainage from the south slopes of the Boston Mountains to the Arkansas River. Major streams of this type include Lee Creek, Frog Bayou, Mulberry River, Spadra Creek, Big Piney Creek, Little Piney Creek, Illinois Bayou, Point Remove Creek, and Cadron Creek. Many Ozark waterways have their headwaters in the uplands of the Boston formation, including the Buffalo, King’s, Mulberry, Little Red and White rivers.</p><br>
<p>Topography is mostly gently rolling in the Springfield and Salem Plateaus, whereas the Saint Francois Mountains are more rugged. Although the Springfield formation&#39;s surface is primarily Mississippian limestone and chert, the Salem Plateau is older Ordovician dolostones, limestones, and sandstones. Both are rife with karst topography and form long, flat plains. The formations are separated by steep escarpments that dramatically interrupt the rolling hills. Although much of the Springfield Plateau has been denuded of the surface layers of the Boston Mountains, large remnants of these younger layers are present throughout the southern end of the formation, possibly suggesting a peneplain process. The Springfield Plateau drains through wide, mature streams ultimately feeding the White River.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Saint Francois Mountains in the northeastern Ozarks are the eroded remnants of an ancient range which form the geological core of the highland dome. The igneous and volcanic rocks of the Saint Francois Mountains are the exposed remains of a Proterozoic mountain range hundreds of millions of years old. The remaining hills are the exposed portion of an extensive terrane (the Spavinaw terrane in part) of granitic and rhyolitic rocks dating from 1485 to 1350 mya that stretches from Ohio to western Oklahoma. The core of the range existed as an island in the Paleozoic seas. Reef complexes occur in the sedimentary layers surrounding this ancient island. These flanking reefs were points of concentration for later ore-bearing fluids which formed the rich lead-zinc ores that have been and continue to be mined in the area. The igneous and volcanic rocks extend at depth under the relatively thin veneer of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and form the basal crust of the entire region.</p><br>
<p>A major unconformity in the region attests that the Ozarks was above sea level for several hundred million years from the time of the volcanism in the Precambrian until the mid-Cambrian with an erosionally produced relief of up to 1500 feet. The seas encroached during the late Cambrian producing the Lamotte Sandstone, 200 to 300 ft thick, followed by carbonate sedimentation. Coral reefs formed around the granite and rhyolite islands in this Cambrian sea. This carbonate formation, the Bonneterre now mostly dolomite, is exposed around the St. Francis mountains, but extends in the subsurface throughout the Ozarks and reaches a thickness of 400 to 1500 ft. The Bonneterre is overlain by 500 to 600 ft of dolomite, often sandy, silty or cherty, forming the Elvins Group and the Potosi and Eminence Formations. Withdrawal of the seas resulted in another unconformity during the latest Cambrian and early Ordovician periods. Hydrothermal mineralizing fluids formed the rich lead ore deposits of the Lead Belt during this time.</p><br>
<p>Sedimentation resumed in the Ordovician with the deposition of the Gunter sandstone, the Gasconade dolomite and the prominent Roubidoux sandstone and dolomite. The sandstone of the Roubidoux forms prominent bluffs along the streams eroding into the southern part of the Salem Plateau. The Roubidoux and Gunter sandstones serve as significant aquifers when present in the subsurface. The source of the sands is considered to be the emerging Wisconsin Dome to the northeast. The Ozark region remained as a subsiding shallow carbonate shelf environment with a significant thickness of cherty dolomites as the Jefferson City, Cotter and Powell formations.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the Ozark Plateau, the Springfield plateau of southwest Missouri and northern Arkansas, are underlain by Mississippian cherty limestones locally referred to as Boone chert consisting of limestone and chert layers. These are eroded and form steep hills, valleys and bluffs.</p><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains are a high and deeply dissected plateau. The rocks of the region are essentially little disturbed, flat-lying sedimentary layers of Paleozoic age. The highest ridges and peaks are capped by Pennsylvanian sandstone such as the basal Atoka and the "Middle Bloyd". The deeply eroded valleys are cut into Mississippian limestone and below that layer Ordovician dolomite.</p><br>
<p>During the Pennsylvanian Period the Ozark Plateau was uplifted as a result of the Ouachita orogeny. During the late Paleozoic the deep ocean basin that existed in central and southern Arkansas was lifted when South America collided with North America creating the folded Ouachita Mountains and uplifting the Ozark plateau to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology and conservation</h2><br>
<p>Formal conservation in the region began when the Ozark National Forest was created by proclamation of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1908 to preserve 917,944 acre across five Arkansas counties. Another 608,537 acre were added the following year. The initial forest included area as far south as Mount Magazine and as far east as Sylamore. In 1939, Congress established Mark Twain National Forest at nine sites in Missouri. Wildlife management areas were founded in the 1920s and 30s to restore populations to viable numbers. Land was also added to Ozark National Forest during this period, with over 544,000 acre in total additions. Some land was reclaimed by the government through the Resettlement Administration during the Great Depression. In 1976, Congress established Hercules-Glades Wilderness, the first of 13 designated wilderness areas in the Ozarks. In 1986, Congress established the in northeast Oklahoma. Protected areas ensure the recovery of endangered and threatened species of animals and plants, including the Ozark big-eared bat, Indiana bat, eastern small-footed bat, southeastern bat, southeastern big-eared bat; longnose darter, Ozark cavefish, Ozark cave crayfish, Bowman&#39;s cave amphipod, Ozark cave amphipod, bat cave isopod; and Ozark chinquapin. It is a habitat of migratory birds and contains geological, archeological, historical, and paleontological resources.</p><br>
<p>Commercial farms and processing operations are known to raise levels of chemical and biological contaminants in Ozark streams, threatening water supplies, recreational use and endangered native species.</p><br>
<h2>Lakes and streams</h2><br>
<p>The United States Army Corps of Engineers lakes that were created by damming the White River beginning in 1911 with Lake Taneycomo have provided a large tourist, boating and fishing economy along the Missouri–Arkansas border. Six lakes were created by dams in the White River basin from 1911 through 1960. White River lakes include Lake Sequoyah, a small recreational fishing lake east of Fayetteville, Arkansas, formed in 1961; Sequoyah is the uppermost impoundment on the White River. Below Sequoyah (northeast of Fayetteville) is Beaver Lake, formed in 1960. The White River continues northeasterly into Table Rock Lake (1958) in Missouri, which feeds directly into Taneycomo, where the river zigzags southeasterly into Arkansas forming Bull Shoals Lake along the Arkansas-Missouri line. Completed in 1952, Bull Shoals is the furthest downstream lake on the White River proper. Lake Norfork was formed by damming the North Fork River, a tributary of the White River, in 1941.</p><br>
<p>The Lake of the Ozarks, Pomme de Terre Lake, and Truman Lake in the northern Ozarks were formed by impounding the Osage River and its tributary the Pomme de Terre River in 1931, 1961 and 1979 respectively. Grand Lake in northeast Oklahoma was created in 1940. Stockton Lake was formed by damming the Sac River near the city of Stockton, Missouri in 1969 and supplements the water supply of Springfield in nearby Greene County. Most of the dams were built for the dual purpose of flood control and hydropower generation.</p><br>
<p>The creation of the lakes significantly altered the Ozark landscape and affected traditional Ozark culture through displacement. Many cemeteries, farm roads, river fords and railways were lost when the lakes came, disrupting rural culture, travel and commerce. Baxter County, Arkansas alone saw nearly four-hundred people displaced to make way for the reservoir created by Norfork Dam. The town of Forsyth, Missouri was relocated in its entirety to a spot two miles (3 km) from its previous location. Prior to damming, the White and Osage River basins were similar to the current conditions of the Buffalo, Elk, Niangua, Gasconade, Big Piney, Current, Jacks Fork, Eleven Point and Meramec rivers.</p><br>
<p>The Buffalo National River was created by an Act of Congress in 1972 as the nation&#39;s first National River administered by the National Park Service. The designation came after over a decade of battling a proposed Army Corps dam in the media, legislature, and courts to keep the river free flowing. Today, the Buffalo sees approximately 800,000 visitors camping, canoeing, floating, hiking, and tubing annually. In Missouri, the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, was established in 1964 along the Current and Jacks Fork rivers as the first US national park based on a river system. The Eleven Point River is included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System established in 1968. These river parks annually draw a combined 1.5 million recreational tourists to the least populated counties in Arkansas and Missouri.</p><br>
<p>Many other waterways and streams have their headwaters in the Boston Mountains such as the Mulberry River, the White River, War Eagle Creek, Little Mulberry Creek, Lee Creek, Big Piney Creek, and the Little Red River. To the south, the Arkansas River valley separates the Boston Mountains from the Ouachita Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Missouri Ozark rivers include the Gasconade, Big Piney and the Niangua River in the north central region. The Meramec River and its tributaries Huzzah Creek and Courtois Creek are found in the northeastern Ozarks. The Black and St. Francis Rivers mark the eastern crescent of the Ozarks. The James, Spring and North Fork Rivers are in south central Missouri. Forming the West central border of the Ozarks from Missouri through Kansas and into Oklahoma are Spring River and its tributary Center Creek. Grand Falls, Missouri&#39;s largest natural waterfall, a chert outcropping, includes bluffs and glades on Shoal Creek south of Joplin. All these river systems see heavy recreational use in season, including the Elk River in Southwest Missouri and its tributary Big Sugar Creek.</p><br>
<p>Ozark rivers and streams are typically clear water, with baseflows sustained by many seeps and springs and flow through forests along limestone and dolomite bluffs. Gravel bars are common along shallow banks, while deep holes are found along bluffs. Except during periods of heavy rain or snow melt – when water levels rise quite rapidly – their level of difficulty is suitable for most canoeing and tubing.</p><br>
<p>Fish hatcheries are common due to the abundance of springs and waterways. private hatcheries such as Rockbridge are found throughout the region.</p><br>
<h2>Regional economy</h2><br>
<h3>Traditional economic activity</h3><br>
<p>The Ozarks contain ore deposits of lead, zinc, iron and barite. Many of these deposits have been depleted by historic mining activities, but much remains and is currently being mined in the Lead Belt of southeast Missouri. Historically the lead belt around the Saint Francois Mountains and the Tri-state district lead-zinc mining area around Joplin, Missouri, have been very important sources of metals. Mining practices common in the early 20th century left significant abandoned underground mine problems and heavy metal contamination in topsoil and groundwater in the Tri-state district.</p><br>
<p>Much of the area supports beef cattle ranching, and dairy farming is common across the area. Dairy farms are usually cooperative affairs, with small farms selling to a corporate wholesaler who packages product under a common brand for retail sales. Petroleum exploration and extraction also takes place in the Oklahoma portion of the Ozarks, as well as in the east half of the Boston Mountains in Arkansas. Logging of both softwood and hardwood timber species on both private land and in the National Forests has long been an important economic activity.</p><br>
<p>The majority of the Ozarks is forested; oak-hickory is the predominant type; Eastern Junipers are common, with stands of pine often seen in the southern range. Less than a quarter of the region has been cleared for pasture and cropland. Forests that were heavily logged during the early-to-mid-20th century have recovered; much of the remaining timber in the Ozarks is second-growth forest. However, deforestation of frontier forest contributed through erosion to increased gravel bars along Ozark waterways in logged areas; stream channels have become wider and shallower and deepwater fish habitat has been lost.</p><br>
<p>The numerous rivers and streams of the region saw hundreds of water-powered timber and grist mills. Mills were important centers of culture and commerce; dispersed widely throughout the region, mills served local needs, often thriving within a few miles of another facility. Few Ozark mills relied on inefficient water wheels for power; most utilized a dam, millrace and water turbine.</p><br>
<p>During the New Deal, the Civilian Conservation Corps employed hundreds in the construction of nearly 400 fire lookouts throughout the Ozarks at 121 known sites in Arkansas and 257 in Missouri. Of those lookouts, about half remain, and many of them are in use by the Forest Service. A 2007 report by the National Trust for Historic Preservation deemed these fire lookouts and related structures as one of America&#39;s 11 Most Endangered Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s federal activity promoted modernization, especially through better transportation and tourism. The Ozarks Regional Commission sponsored numerous projects.</p><br>
<h3>Current economic activities</h3><br>
<p>Tourism is the growth industry of the Ozarks as evidenced by the growth of the Branson, Missouri, entertainment center celebrating the traditional Ozark culture. The rapidly growing Northwest Arkansas metropolitan area has also become a tourist hub, drawing nationwide attention for Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>Poultry farming and food processing are significant industries throughout the region. The Tyson Foods corporation and ConAgra Foods each operates several hundred poultry farms and processing plants throughout the Ozarks. Schreiber Foods has operations throughout southern Missouri. Stillwell foods has frozen vegetable and other food processing centers in eastern Oklahoma.</p><br>
<p>The trucking industry is important to the regional economy with national carriers based there including J. B. Hunt, ABF and Prime, Inc. Springfield remains an operational hub for BNSF Railway. Logging and timber industries are also significant in the Ozark economy with operations ranging from small family run sawmills to large commercial concerns. Fortune 500 companies such as Wal-Mart in Bentonville, Arkansas, Leggett & Platt and O&#39;Reilly Auto Parts are based in the Ozarks.</p><br>
<p>The area is also home to several Missouri wine regions including the Ozark Highlands and Ozark Mountain American Viticultural Areas.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Ozark also refers to the distinctive culture, architecture, and dialect shared by the people who live on the plateau. Early settlers in Missouri were American pioneers who came West from the Southern Appalachians at the beginning of the 19th century, followed in the 1840s and 1850s by Irish and German immigrants. Much of the Ozark population is of English, Scots-Irish, and German descent, often including some Native American ancestry, and the Ozark families from which the regional culture derived</p><br>
<p>Early settlers relied on hunting, fishing, and trapping, and foraging to supplement their diets and incomes. Edible native legumes, wild grasses and wildflowers are plentiful, and beekeeping is common.</p><br>
<p>Print and broadcast media have explored Ozark culture broadly. Books set in the Ozarks include Where the Red Fern Grows, The Shepherd of the Hills The 1999 film Ride with the Devil, based on the book Woe to Live On, depicts warfare in Southwest Missouri during the Civil War. Winters Bone, a novel by Daniel Woodrell (author of Woe to Live On) reflects on contemporary methamphetamine culture and its impact on families on the plateau. Released as a feature film in 2010, Winters Bone received the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival, as well as other awards. Several early and influential country-music television and radio programs originated from Springfield in the 1950s and 60s, including ABC-TVs Ozark Jubilee and The Slim Wilson Show on KYTV. The Clampett clan of The Beverly Hillbillies TV show provide a stereotypical depiction of Ozark people. Ozark musicians include Porter Wagoner and old-time fiddler Bob Holt.</p><br>
<p>Examples of commercial interpretations of traditional Ozark culture include the two major family theme parks in the region, Silver Dollar City and the now defunct Dogpatch USA and the resort entertainment complex in Branson. in Winslow, Arkansas and Ozark Folk Center State Park in Mountain View, Arkansas interpret regional culture through musical performance and exhibitions of pioneer skills and crafts.</p><br>
<p>Traditional Ozark culture includes stories and tunes passed orally between generations through community music parties and other informal gatherings. Many of these tunes and tales can be traced to having British origins and to German folklore. Moreover, historian Vance Randolph attributes the formation of much Ozark lore to individual families when "backwoods parents begin by telling outrageous whoppers to their children and end by half believing the wildest of these tales themselves." In 1941–42, commissioned by Alan Lomax of the Archive of Folk Culture, Randolph returned to the Ozarks with a portable recording machine from the Library of Congress and captured over 800 songs, ballads and instrumentals. Selected from among these several hundred recordings, 35 tracks were released on Various Artists: Ozark Folksongs (Rounder Records) in 2001.</p><br>
<p>Square dances were an important social avenue throughout the Ozarks into the 20th century. Square dances sprang up wherever people concentrated around mills and timber camps, springs, fords, and in towns small and large. Geographically isolated communities saw their own local dance tunes and variations develop. The collection includes more than 3,000 hours of fiddle music and interviews recorded at jam sessions, music parties, concerts and dances in the Ozarks. Selected audio recordings along with biographical sketches, photographs and tune histories were published in Drew Beisswenger and Gordon McCann&#39;s 2008 book/37 track CD set Mel Bay Presents Ozarks Fiddle Music: 308 Tunes Featuring 30 Legendary Fiddlers With Selections from 50 Other Great Ozarks Fiddlers.</p><br>
<p>From 1973 to 1983, the Bittersweet project, which began as an English class at Lebanon, Missouri High School, collected 476 taped and transcribed interviews, published 482 stories and took over 50,000 photographs documenting traditional Ozark culture.</p><br>
<p>Population influx since the 1950s, coupled with geographically lying in both the Midwest and Upper South, proximity to the Mississippi embayment, the Osage and Northern Plains, contributes to changing cultural values in the Ozarks. Theme parks and theatres seen to reflect regional values have little in common with traditional Ozark culture. Community tradition bearers remain active, in decreasing numbers, far afield of commercial offers.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Ozark religion, like that of Appalachia, was predominantly Baptist and Methodist during periods of early settlement; it tends to the conservative or individualistic, with Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptists including Southern Baptists, Church of Christ, Pentecostals, and other Protestant denominations present, as well as Catholics. Religious organizations headquartered in the Ozarks include the Assemblies of God and the Baptist Bible Fellowship International in Springfield.</p><br>
<p>The River Ness  is a river about 6 miles or 10km long, which flows from the northern end of Loch Ness in Scotland, through Loch Dochfour, north-east to Inverness, with a total fall in height of about 16 metres before discharging into the Beauly Firth. The river is the origin of the name of Inverness which is from the Inbhir Nis, meaning "Mouth of the Ness".</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour delineates the start of the River Ness. At Carnarc Point on the west bank the river discharges into the eastern end of the Beauly Firth, which is a continuation of the Moray Firth, at Kessock. The northern section of the Caledonian Canal passes partly through the River Ness and partly alongside it. The river Ness is of glacial origin. Although of short length the River Ness has one of the highest average discharge rates in the UK of 11,000 cu ft/s (300m³/s).</p><br>
<h2>Ness Catchment</h2><br>
<p>Although the River Ness starts at Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour it is supplied by Loch Ness and so all the rivers flowing into Loch Ness are part of the River Ness catchment area:</p><br>
<p>River Ness</p><br>
<p>River Farigaig (R) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>River Enrick (L) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>River Coiltie (L) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>River Foyers (R) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>*River Fechlin (L)</p><br>
<p>*Allt Breineag (L)</p><br>
<p>*River E (L) (flows into Loch Mhòr)</p><br>
<p>River Moriston (L) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>*Allt Bhlaraidh (L)</p><br>
<p>*River Doe (L)</p><br>
<p>*River Loyne (R)</p><br>
<p>Allt Doe (R) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>River Oich (L)? (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<p>*River Garry, Inverness-shire (flows into Loch Oich)</p><br>
<p>River Tarff, Fort Augustus (R) (flows into Loch Ness)</p><br>
<h2>Notable buildings</h2><br>
<p>On a hill above the river in Inverness stands Inverness Castle. Next to the castle is the Inverness Museum and Art Gallery. The river is overlooked by the Eden Court Theatre, one of the largest theatres in Scotland. St. Andrews Cathedral also lies on the banks of the River Ness as does Old High St Stephens which stands on a hill known as St Michael&#39;s Mount. Inverness draws many tourists and there are hotels along the river.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>There are several bridges in Inverness which cross the River Ness: the Ness Islands bridges; the Infirmary Bridge, built at Rose Street Foundry, Inverness 1879; Ness Bridge, constructed in 1961 replacing an earlier bridge which itself replaced a bridge of 1685 which collapsed during flooding in 1849. The 1685 bridge was sketched by J. M. W. Turner in 1831 and the sketch belongs to the Tate; Greig Street Bridge; Friar&#39;s Bridge; Waterloo Bridge; and the Railway Bridge, which is a steel bridge fabricated in 1989 to replace the earlier stone bridge which was swept away in floods in 1989. The Greig Street Bridge is a picturesque suspension bridge built in Inverness in 1881.</p><br>
<h2>Nature and Parks</h2><br>
<p>Upstream of Inverness city centre lie the Ness Islands which are popular for nature walks and have many fine tree specimens. The river flows through the heart of the City of Inverness, and fishermen in waders can often be seen casting for salmon. The Ness District Salmon Fishery Board is the statutory body responsible for the protection and enhancement of salmon and sea trout fisheries in the Ness District. Common seals and grey seals are often seen, as are grey heron, pipistrelle and Daubenton&#39;s bats, housemartins, grey wagtail, great black backed gull, European herring gull, oystercatchers, mallards, dippers, goosander and other diving birds. At certain times of the year Arctic terns can be seen lining the railings along the river banks and rarely eagle owl have been seen and the occasional osprey has been spotted fishing in the river from the Ness Islands. European otter are sometimes spotted. The banks of the river are lined with lime trees.</p><br>
<p>Near the Ness Islands on the west bank is Bught Park which has facilities for sports and leisure. Here can be found Inverness Sports Centre and Aquadome, the ice rink and Inverness Botanic Gardens formerly known as the Floral Hall and Gardens containing tropical and desert glasshouses and a water cascade. Further upstream from Bught Park is Whin Park which has a boating pond.</p><br>
<p>In Cavell Gardens near the Infirmary Bridge is Inverness war memorial which commemorates the fallen of the two world wars. The memorial is made of red sandstone and is designed in the form of a Celtic cross.</p><br>
<h2>Flood Alleviation</h2><br>
<p>A major flood alleviation scheme is currently under construction in the city centre side of the river. The £8.5 million contract for this phase is being undertaken by Morgan Sindall.</p><br>
<h2>The Port of Inverness</h2><br>
<p>The Port of Inverness is situated at the mouth of the River Ness where there is also a recently constructed marina offering mooring for private yachts and other vessels.</p><br>
<h2>Miscellanea</h2><br>
<p>The first claimed sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in AD 565, when Saint Columba is said to have banished a "water monster" back into the river after it tried to attack one of his disciples who was swimming across the river.</p><br>
<p>According to Adomnán, when Columba visited King Bridei I of Pictland at his house on the River Ness, he met a wizard named Broichan who had an Irish slave-girl that he refused to release even though Columba pleaded with him. Columba went out of Bridei&#39;s house and picked up a white pebble from the river. He said that the pebble would be used to heal many sick people in Pictland, and that Broichan was suffering for his sins at that very moment. After he had finished speaking, two messengers came to tell them that Broichan had a seizure and they wanted Columba to help them. Columba gave them the stone and said to dip it in water to give to Broichan, if he agreed to release the slave-girl. He agreed to do so, and the stone was put in water and it floated on it; the wizard drank from the water and was healed. This stone was kept by King Bridei in the royal treasury for the rest of his life, and anyone who came there for healing would be given water with the stone floating in it, and they would be healed.</p><br>
<p>The Caledonian Canal connects the Scottish east coast at Inverness with the west coast at Corpach near Fort William in Scotland. The canal was constructed in the early nineteenth century by Scottish engineer Thomas Telford, and is a sister canal of the Göta Canal in Sweden, also constructed by Telford.</p><br>
<h2>Route</h2><br>
<p>The canal runs some 60 mi from northeast to southwest. Only one third of the entire length is man-made, the rest being formed by Loch Dochfour, Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. These lochs are located in the Great Glen, on a geological fault in the Earths crust. There are 29 locks (including eight at Neptunes Staircase, Banavie), four aqueducts and 10 bridges in the course of the canal.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The canal was conceived as a way of providing much-needed employment to the Highland region. The area was depressed as a result of the Highland Clearances, which had deprived many of their homes and jobs. Laws had been introduced which sought to eradicate the local culture, including bans on wearing tartan, playing the bagpipes, and speaking Gaelic. Many emigrated to Canada or elsewhere, or moved to the Scottish Lowlands. The canal would also provide a safer passage for wooden sailing ships from the north east of Scotland to the south west, avoiding the route around the north coast via Cape Wrath and the Pentland Firth.</p><br>
<p>The first survey for a canal was carried out by James Watt in 1773, but it was the Caledonian Canal Commission that paved the way for the actual construction. and the canal engineer Thomas Telford was asked to survey, design and build the waterway. Telford worked with William Jessop on the survey, and the two men oversaw the construction until Jessop died in 1814. The canal was expected to take seven years to complete, and to cost £474,000, to be funded by the Government, but both estimates were inadequate.</p><br>
<p>Because of the remoteness of the location, construction was started at both ends, so that completed sections could be used to bring in the materials for the middle sections. As Thomas Telford could only visit the work about twice a year, he appointed Matthew Davidson, like Telford, a Dumfrieshire stonemason, to manage the work at the east end. John Telford, who is thought not to have been related to Thomas, was to manage the difficult western end. The work was to prove a serious challenge to John Telford&#39;s health and he died in 1807, to be replaced by Alexander Easton. John Telford was buried in Kilmallie churchyard, where his ornate grave, now in dilapidated condition, can still be seen.</p><br>
<p>At Corpach, near Fort William, the entrance lock was built on rock, but at the other end, there was 56 ft of mud below the proposed site of the sea lock. Rock was tipped on top of the mud and was allowed to settle for six months before construction could begin. The ground through which the canal was cut was variable, and further difficulties were experienced with the construction of the locks, the largest ever built at the time. There were also problems with the labour force, with high levels of absence, particularly during and after the potato harvest and the peat cutting season. This led to Telford bringing in Irish navvies to manage the shortfall, which led to further criticism, since one of the main aims of the project was to reduce unemployment in the Highlands. but the draught had been reduced from 20 ft to 15 ft, in an effort to save costs. In the meantime, shipbuilding had advanced, with the introduction of steam-powered iron-hulled ships, many of which were now too big to use the canal. The Royal Navy did not need to use the canal either, as Napoleon had been defeated at Waterloo in 1815, and the perceived threat to shipping when the canal was started was now gone.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>Before long, defects in some of the materials used became apparent, and part of Corpach double lock collapsed in 1843. This led to a decision to close the canal to allow repairs to be carried out, and the depth was increased to 18 ft at the same time. The work was designed by Telford&#39;s associate James Walker,carried out by Jackson and Bean of Aston, Birmingham and completed between 1843 and 1847 at a cost of £136,089. However, not all of the traffic expected to return to using the canal did so. Commercially, the venture was not a success, but the dramatic scenery through which it passes led to it becoming a tourist attraction. Queen Victoria took a trip along it in 1873, and the publicity surrounding the trip resulted in a large increase in visitors to the region and the canal. The arrival of the railways at Fort William, Fort Augustus and Inverness did little to harm the canal, as trains were scheduled to connect with steamboat services.</p><br>
<p>There was an upsurge in commercial traffic during the First World War, when components for the construction of mines were shipped through the canal on their way to Inverness from America, and fishing boats used it to avoid possible enemy action on the longer route around the north of Scotland. Ownership passed to the Ministry of Transport in 1920, and then to British Waterways in 1962. Improvements were made, with the locks being mechanised between 1964 and 1969. By 1990, the canal was in obvious need of restoration, with lock walls bulging, and it was estimated that repairs would cost £60 million. With no prospect of the Government funding this, British Waterways devised a repair plan, and between 1995 and 2005, sections of the canal were drained each winter. Stainless steel rods were used to tie the double-skinned lock walls together, and over 25,000 tonnes of grout were injected into the lock structures. All of the lock gates were replaced, and the result was a canal whose structures are probably in a better condition than they have ever been.</p><br>
<p>The canal is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and attracts over half a million visitors each year. British Waterways, who work with the Highland Council and the Scottish Forestry Commission through the Great Glen Ways Initiative, were hoping to increase this number to over 1 million by 2012. There are many ways for tourists to enjoy the canal, such as taking part in the Great Glen Rally, cycling along the tow-paths, or cruising on Hotel Barges.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The canal has several names in Scottish Gaelic including Amar-Uisge/Seòlaid a Ghlinne Mhòir ("Waterway of the Great Glen"), Sligh-Uisge na h-Alba ("Waterway of Scotland") and a literal translation (An) Canàl Cailleannach.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>The Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica is one of the largest valley glaciers in the world, being 125 mi long and having a width of 25 mi. It descends about 7,200 ft from the Antarctic Plateau to the Ross Ice Shelf and is bordered by the Commonwealth Range of the Queen Maud Mountains on the eastern side and the Queen Alexandra Range of the Central Transantarctic Mountains on the western.</p><br>
<p>The glacier is one of the main passages through the Transantarctic Mountains to the great polar plateau beyond, and was one of the early routes to the South Pole despite its steep upward incline.</p><br>
<p>The glacier was discovered and climbed by Ernest Shackleton during his Nimrod Expedition of 1908. Although Shackleton turned back before reaching the South Pole, he established the first proven route towards the pole and, in doing so, became the first person to set foot upon the polar plateau. In 1911–1912, Captain Scott and his Terra Nova Expedition team reached the South Pole by similarly climbing the Beardmore. However, they reached the pole a month after Roald Amundsen and his team, who had chosen a route up the previously unknown Axel Heiberg Glacier.</p><br>
<p>Beardmore Glacier was named by Shackleton after Sir William Beardmore, a Scottish industrialist and expedition sponsor born in 1856.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 the first beetle fossils, in the form of wing-cases (elytra) of Ball&#39;s Antarctic tundra beetle, 14 to 20 million years old, were found on the glacier.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church is a historic, well-endowed parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York. It is located near the intersection of Wall Street and Broadway in the lower Manhattan section of New York City, New York. Trinity, a traditional High church, is an active parish centered around the Episcopal Church and the worldwide Anglican Communion in missionary, outreach, and fellowship.</p><br>
<h2>History and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Trinity Church has been significant to New York City’s history for over 300 years. In 1696, Governor Benjamin Fletcher approved the purchase of land in Lower Manhattan by the Church of England community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from King William III on May 6, 1697. Its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat. The first rector was William Vesey (for whom nearby Vesey Street is named), a protege of Increase Mather, who served for 49 years until his death in 1746.</p><br>
<h3>First Trinity Church</h3><br>
<p>The first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a gambrel roof and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on Wall Street, facing the Hudson River. The land on which it was built was formerly a formal garden and then a burial ground. It was built because in 1696, members of the Church of England (Anglicans) protested to obtain a “charter granting the church legal status” in New York City. According to historical records, Captain William Kidd lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones.</p><br>
<p>Anne, Queen of Great Britain, increased the parishs land holdings to 215 acre in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded Trinity School as the Charity School of the church, and classes were originally held in the steeple of the church. In 1754, Kings College (now Columbia University) was chartered by King George II of Great Britain, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War the city became the British military and political base of operations in North America, following the departure of General George Washington and the Continental Army shortly after Battle of Long Island and subsequent local defeats. Under British occupation clergy were required to be Loyalists, while the parishioners included some members of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress, as well as the First and Second Continental Congresses.</p><br>
<p>The church was destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776, which started in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, destroying nearly 400 to 500 buildings and houses, and leaving thousands of New Yorkers homeless. Six days later, most of the city&#39;s volunteer firemen followed General Washington north.</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Samuel Provoost was appointed Rector of Trinity (1784-1800) in 1784, and the New York State Legislature ratified the charter of Trinity Church, deleting the provision that asserted its loyalty to the King of England. Whig patriots were appointed as vestrymen. In 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended Thanksgiving service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at St. Pauls Chapel, a chapel of the Parish of Trinity Church. He continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Pauls Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in continuous use in New York City.</p><br>
<h3>Second Trinity Church</h3><br>
<p>Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788; it was consecrated in 1790. St. Paul’s Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built.</p><br>
<p>The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street; it was 200 feet tall, and longer and wider than its predecessor. Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838&ndash;39.</p><br>
<p>The second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.</p><br>
<h3>Third Trinity Church</h3><br>
<p>The third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846. When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on Ascension Day (May 1) 1846, its soaring Neo-Gothic spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, dominated the skyline of lower Manhattan. Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into New York Harbor.</p><br>
<p>In 1843, Trinity Church&#39;s expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape and to better serve the needs of its parishioners. The newly formed parish would build Grace Church, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today. Both Grace and Trinity Churches were completed and consecrated in 1846.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church held the title of tallest building in the United States until 1869, when it was surpassed by St. Michaels Church, Old Town, Chicago. At the time of its completion, Trinitys 281 ft spire and cross comprised the highest point in New York, until it was surpassed in 1883 by the stone tower of the Brooklyn Bridge, and in 1890 by the New York World Building.</p><br>
<p>In 1876-1877 a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor, Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers.</p><br>
<p>Architectural historians consider the third and present Trinity Church building, built in 1846 and designed by architect Richard Upjohn, the first and finest example of Gothic Revival (aka Neo-Gothic architecture. In 1976 the United States Department of the Interior designated Trinity Church a National Historic Landmark because of its architectural significance and its place within the history of New York City.</p><br>
<h3>Trinity today</h3><br>
<p>On July 9, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Trinity Church. Vestrymen presented the Queen with a symbolic "back rent" of 279 peppercorns.</p><br>
<p>Since 1993, Trinity Church has hosted the graduation ceremonies of the High School of Economics and Finance. The school is located on Trinity Place, a few blocks away from the church. The church also houses a museum with exhibits about the history of the church, as well as changing art, religious, and cultural exhibits. Guided tours of the church are offered daily at 2 PM.</p><br>
<h4>September 11, 2001</h4><br>
<p>During the September 11 terrorist attacks, as the first World Trade Center tower collapsed, people took refuge from the massive debris cloud inside the church. Falling wreckage from the collapsing tower knocked over a giant sycamore tree that had stood for nearly a century in the churchyard of St. Pauls Chapel, which is part of Trinity Churchs parish and is located several blocks north of Trinity Church. Sculptor Steve Tobin used its roots as the base for a bronze sculpture titled Trinity Root, which stood in front of the church at the corner of Wall Street and Broadway until December, 2015 when it was moved by the church to its conference center in Connecticut. The move was controversial as it seriously damaged the sculpture, and the artist has objected to its eviction.</p><br>
<h4>Occupy Wall Street</h4><br>
<p>Trinity is located near Zuccotti Park, the location of the Occupy Wall Street protest. It offered both moral and practical support to the demonstrators but balked when church-owned land adjoining Juan Pablo Duarte Square was demanded for an encampment. For withholding this property the church hierarchy were criticized by others within the Anglican movement, most notably Archbishop Desmond Tutu. On December 17, 2011, occupiers, accompanied by a few clergy, attempted to occupy the land (known as LentSpace), which is surrounded by a chain-link fence. After demonstrating in Duarte Park and marching on the streets surrounding the park, occupiers climbed over and under the fence. Police responded by arresting about 50 demonstrators, including at least three Episcopal clergymen and a Roman Catholic nun.</p><br>
<h2>Burial grounds</h2><br>
<p>There are three burial grounds closely associated with Trinity Church:</p><br>
<p>Trinity Churchyard, at Wall Street and Broadway, is where Alexander Hamilton, Elizabeth Schuyler, Angelica Schuyler, Philip Hamilton, William Bradford, Franklin Wharton, Robert Fulton, Captain James Lawrence and Albert Gallatin are buried.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum on Riverside Drive at 155th Street, formerly the location of John James Audubon&#39;s estate, is where John James Audubon, Alfred Tennyson Dickens, John Jacob Astor, and Clement Clarke Moore are buried. It is the only active cemetery remaining in the borough of Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>The Churchyard of St. Paul&#39;s Chapel is where memorials to the United Irishmen Addis Emmet and Dr. William MacNeven are located.</p><br>
<h2>Bells</h2><br>
<p>The tower of Trinity Church currently contains 23 bells, the heaviest of which weighs 27 USA hundredweight (1225 kg).</p><br>
<p>Eight of these bells were cast for the tower of the second church building and were hung for ringing in the English change ringing style. Three more bells were added later. In 1946 these bells were adapted for swing chiming and sounded by electric motors.</p><br>
<p>A project to install a new ring of 12 additional change ringing bells was initially proposed in 2001 but put on hold in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, which took place three blocks north of the church. This project came to fruition in 2006, thanks to funding from the Dill Faulkes Educational Trust. These new bells form the first ring of 12 change-ringing bells ever installed in a church in the United States. The installation work was carried out by Taylors, Eayre and Smith of Loughborough, England, in September 2006.</p><br>
<p>In late 2006, the ringing of the bells for bell practice and tuning caused much concern to local residents, some of whose windows and residences are less than 100 feet at eye level from the bell tower. The church then built a plywood deck right over the bells and placed shutters on the inside of the bell chamber&#39;s lancet windows. With the shutters and the plywood deck closed, the sound of the bells outside the tower is minimal. The shutters, and hatches in the plywood deck, are opened for public ringing.</p><br>
<p>Public ringing takes place before and after 11:15 a.m. Sunday service and on special occasions, such as 9/11 commemorations, weddings, and ticker-tape parades. Details of the individual bells can be found at Dove&#39;s Guide for Church Bellringers.</p><br>
<h2>Doors</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church has three sets of impressive bronze doors conceived by Richard Morris Hunt. These date from 1893 and were produced by Karl Bitter (east door), J. Massey Rhind (south door), and Charles Henry Niehaus (north door). The doors were a gift from William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor in memory of John Jacob Astor III. The north and east doors each consists of six panels from Church history or the Bible, and the south door depicts the history of New York in its six panels.</p><br>
<h2>Services</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church, as an Episcopalian parish in the Anglican Communion, offers a full schedule of Daily Prayer and Eucharist services throughout the week, and based on the Book of Common Prayer; it is also available for special occasions, such as weddings and baptisms. In addition to daily worship, Trinity Church provides Christian fellowship and outreach to the community, the city, the nation, and the world.</p><br>
<p>Sunday</p><br>
<p>8am: St. Paul’s Chapel, Low Eucharist</p><br>
<p>9am: Trinity Church, Family Eucharist (Webcast)</p><br>
<p>9:15am: St. Paul’s Chapel, Holy Eucharist with music</p><br>
<p>11:15am: Trinity Church, Solemn Eucharist (Webcast)</p><br>
<p>8pm: St. Paul’s Chapel, Compline by Candlelight</p><br>
<p>2:30: am St. Paul&#39;s Chapel (nightworkers service)</p><br>
<p>Monday–Friday</p><br>
<p>8:15am: Morning Prayer</p><br>
<p>12:05pm: Low Eucharist (Webcast)</p><br>
<p>5:15pm: Evening Prayer</p><br>
<h2>Music and arts</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church has a rich music program with an annual budget of $2.5 million as of 2011. Concerts at One has been providing live professional classical and contemporary music for the Wall Street community since 1969, and the church has several organized choirs, featured Sunday mornings on WQXR 105.9 FM in New York City. Trinity presents world-class music programs both in New York City and around the world via high definition video streaming.</p><br>
<p>The mainstay of Trinitys music program is The Choir of Trinity Wall Street, a professional ensemble that leads liturgical music at Trinity Church and St. Pauls Chapel, presents new-music concerts in New York City, produces recordings, and performs in international tours. The Choir is often joined by the Trinity Baroque Orchestra, Trinitys ensemble of period instrumentalists, and NOVUS NY, Trinitys contemporary music orchestra.</p><br>
<p>Trinity is also home to a Youth Chorus, Youth Orchestra, Family Choir, Downtown Voices, change bell ringers, and a wide variety of arts programming through Congregational Arts. Visiting choirs from around the world perform at Trinity weekly. The entire music program is under the leadership of Julian Wachner, Director of Music and the Arts, a renowned conductor, composer, and keyboard artist.</p><br>
<h2>Property holdings</h2><br>
<p>Beginning in the 1780s, the churchs claim on 62 acres of Queen Annes 1705 grant was contested in the courts by descendants of a 17th-century Dutchwoman, Anneke Jans Bogardus, who, it was claimed, held original title to that property. The basis of the lawsuits was that only five of Bogardus six heirs had conveyed the land to the English crown in 1671. Numerous times over the course of six decades, the claimants asserted themselves in court, losing each time. The attempt was even revived in the 20th century. In 1959, the Internal Revenue Service sued over the compensation of the churchs property manager, but the church prevailed in Stanton v. United States.</p><br>
<p>Disclosure resulting from a lawsuit filed by a parishioner revealed total assets of about $2 billion as of 2011. it is still one of the largest landowners in New York City with 14 acres of Manhattan real estate including 5.5 million square feet of commercial space in Hudson Square. The parish&#39;s annual revenue from its real estate holdings was $158 million in 2011 with net income of $38 million, making it perhaps one of the richest individual parishes in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Staff</h2><br>
<p>Clergy</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Dr. William Lupfer (Rector)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Philip Jackson (Vicar)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Dr. Mark Francisco Bozzuti-Jones (Priest for Pastoral Care & Community)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Daniel Simons (Priest for Liturgy, Hospitality & Pilgrimage)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Kristin Miles (Associate Priest, Pastoral Care & Community)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Canon Benjamin Musoke-Lubega (Priest and Director of Anglican Relations)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Winnie Varghese (Priest and Director of Justice and Reconciliation)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Frank Hakoola (Priest and Program Officer for Africa)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Elizabeth Blunt (Priest for Congregational Life and the Arts)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Hershey Mallette Stephens (Interim Program Manager for St. Paul’s Chapel and Membership)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Deacon Robert Zito (Parish Deacon)</p><br>
<p>The Rev. Deacon Eva Suarez (Parish Deacon)</p><br>
<p>Lay Staff</p><br>
<p>Dr. Bob Scott (Director, Faith Formation)</p><br>
<p>Julian Wachner (Director, Music and the Arts)</p><br>
<p>Avi Stein (Associate Organist and Chorusmaster)</p><br>
<p>Scott Smith (Head Sacristan)</p><br>
<p>Jennifer Chinn (Program Manager, Justice and Reconciliation)</p><br>
<p>Kathy Bozzuti-Jones (Associate Director of Faith Formation & Education)</p><br>
<p>Ellen Andrews (Program Manager, Pastoral Care & Community)</p><br>
<p>Wendy Claire Barrie (Program Manager for Children & Youth)</p><br>
<p>Melissa Attebury (Associate Director of Music and the Arts)</p><br>
<p>Mandy Culbreath (Program Coordinator for Social Outreach)</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church was the site of the Templar treasure in the feature film National Treasure (2004), starring Nicolas Cage.</p><br>
<p>The Hutt River  flows through the southern North Island of New Zealand. It flows south-west from the southern Tararua Range for 56 km, forming a number of fertile floodplains, including Kaitoke, central Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The headwaters in the Kaitoke Regional Park are closed to preserve the quality of the drinking water drawn off at Kaitoke to supply the greater Wellington area. Below Kaitoke is the Kaitoke Gorge, a popular destination for rafting. Below the gorge is Te Marua, where the Mangaroa River joins the Hutt from the east. Further down, at Birchville, the Akatarawa River joins the Hutt from the west. Here it flows in a deep channel between the surrounding hills and is turned to flow across the Wellington Fault to Maoribank. The movement of the fault can be seen from the displacement of the river terraces in Harcourt Park. At the top of the Upper Hutt floodplain, the river makes a sharp turn against the bedrock at the foot of the cliff at Maoribank to flow down the valley. The Upper Hutt floodplain contains the greater portion of Upper Hutt city. The Whakatiki River joins the Hutt from the west and it is about this point the river starts to flow along the virtually straight Wellington geologic fault, which lies on the western side of the river valley. At the lower end of the Upper Hutt floodplain is Taita Gorge, which separates Upper Hutt from Lower Hutt, this gorge is significantly shorter and less constricting than Kaitoke gorge. The river&#39;s outflow, at Petone, is into Wellington Harbour. The geological fault that the river previously followed continues as a steep bluff at the edge of the Wellington Harbour.</p><br>
<p>State Highway 2 follows the course of the river for most of its length, with the exception of the Kaitoke Gorge and the head waters, before crossing the Rimutaka Range into the Wairarapa.</p><br>
<h3>Bridges</h3><br>
<p>Heading downstream:</p><br>
<p>Kaitoke Swingbridges, 2 footbridges in Kaitoke Regional Park.</p><br>
<p>Te Marua Bridge, (demolished)</p><br>
<p>Akatarawa Road Bridge, a two-lane road bridge opened in 1981 to replace a single-lane road bridge opened in 1915 and demolished in 1982. Abutments of the old bridge remain in the adjacent downstream riverbank and a pier footing remains in the river bed.</p><br>
<p>Akatarawa Bridge, the old Hutt County Council wooden truss bridge that crossed the river near the intersection of Rata Street and Birch Terrace with Akatarawa Road. Constructed in 1880-81 and closed in 1953. Piers damaged by flooding and then demolished and removed from riverbed in 1998.</p><br>
<p>Hutt Borough Council Pipe Bridge constructed adjacent to the Akatarawa Bridge in 1913 to carry the Hutt Borough Council water supply pipes until decommissioned in 1958. Also damaged by flooding and demolished in 1998 at the same time as the Akatarawa Bridge.</p><br>
<p>Norbert Street Footbridge between California Park in Totara Park and Harcourt Park at the end of Norbert Street in Birchville.</p><br>
<p>Maoribank Suspension Bridge (1917 to 1998) Crossed at the bend in the river at the foot of Maoribank cliff. Cliffside pier damaged by flooding in 1998, making bridge unsafe, so bridge was demolished.</p><br>
<p>Totara Park Bridge (Totara Park Road), a two-lane road bridge opened c. 1970, providing access to the suburb of Totara Park.</p><br>
<p>Moonshine Bridge (River Road/SH 2), a curved two-lane road bridge that was opened in 1987 as part of the River Road bypass of Upper Hutt. It replaced a road bridge slightly upstream of the current bridge.</p><br>
<p>Silverstream Road Bridge (Fergusson Drive): a two-lane road bridge. It also carries a bulk water supply pipe, underslung on the north side, connecting Te Marua water treatment plant with Porirua and Wellington City.</p><br>
<p>Silverstream Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line): a double-track rail bridge that was opened in 1954 to replace the 1875 single-track rail bridge around 500 metres further downstream.</p><br>
<p>Pomare Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line): a double-track rail bridge that was opened in 1954 as part of the Hutt Valley railway deviation.</p><br>
<p>Kennedy-Good Bridge (Fairway Drive): a two-lane road bridge that was opened in 1979 and was the first bridge at this site. The bridge is named after the Mayor of Lower Hutt at the time.</p><br>
<p>Melling Bridge (Melling Link Road): a three-lane bridge (one eastbound, two westbound) that was opened 1957. This is the second bridge at this site, the first being a one-lane suspension bridge opened in 1909, approximately 200 metres upstream.</p><br>
<p>(New) Ewen Bridge: this single span arch bridge carrying four traffic lanes of traffic and footways is the seventh bridge at this site and was opened in 1996. The preceding bridges, which crossed nearer to Bridge Street, upstream of the latest bridge, were opened in 1844, 1847, 1856, 1872, 1904 and 1929.</p><br>
<p>The Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line) a two-track rail bridge with pedestrian walkway. Opened 1927 with the then Hutt Valley branch line to Waterloo</p><br>
<p>Estuary Bridge (Waione Street): a two-lane road bridge that also carries a bulk water supply pipe connecting Waterloo and Wainuiomata water treatment plants with Wellington City. Opened 1954.</p><br>
<h2>Description and recreation</h2><br>
<p>For most of its length, the Hutt is a shallow and sometimes braided river in a wide rocky bed, but in the Kaitoke gorge the river flows directly over bedrock, and approaching the mouth at Petone the river is narrower and the banks steeper. The larger populated areas in Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt are protected from flooding by stopbanks and introduced willow trees, as is common in New Zealand. The regular flooding of Lower Hutt resulted in highly fertile land and prior to the building of state housing by the first Labour Government starting in 1937, there were many market gardens in Lower Hutt.</p><br>
<p>The Hutt has moved significantly since European settlement, due to a major earthquake in 1855 that raised the riverbed.</p><br>
<p>The river can be walked or cycled from Upper Hutt to Petone along tracks on either side, though the eastern bank is more accessible. The Lower Hutt edition of Parkrun, the worldwide weekly 5 km running series, runs along the last 2.5 km section of the Hutt River from just north of the Ewen Bridge down to the Waione Bridge and back.</p><br>
<h2>Naming</h2><br>
<p>The river was named Hutt after Sir William Hutt, chairman of the New Zealand Company. Early Māori residents, such as Ngāi Tara, called it Te Awakairangi. Later Māori settlers named it Te Wai o Orutu after Orutu, a Ngāti Mamoe ancestor. By the time European settlers arrived, Māori called it Heretaunga, a name adopted by an Upper Hutt suburb and secondary school.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The river has a good stock of brown trout.</p><br>
<p>The Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain are the burial sites of twelve royal figures from Balhae. It is located on Longtou Mountain, southeast of Toudao Town  in Helong, Jilin Province, China, a region possibly called the "Western Field of the Ran Valley"  by the Balhae people. The Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo is located here.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction on the first tombs at Longtou Mountain began sometime after 745, when King Mun moved the Balhae capital city to Junggyeong. The cemetery was in use until the end of the Balhae Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>The discovery of Princess Jeonghyo&#39;s tombstone resolved speculation amongst scholars that the area was the former location of Hyundeok Province (현덕부 顯德府) of the Balhae Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>The site has been a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level since January 13, 1988. The walls and the murals of the tomb have been covered with anti-corrosive chemicals; at one point the tomb included at least one tower, but it is no longer standing.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<p>The first excavations at Longtou Mountain were conducted in 1980 by the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture Museum of Jilin. They excavated the Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo in the Dragon Sea section. At the same time, members of the museum, in addition to other organisations, conducted a survey of a 7.5 km area. Local archaeologists were also invited to conduct test excavations on some of the other tombs, which produced various precious artefacts.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, the Yanbian Museum excavated seven tombs in the Dragon Sea area. All seven were clustered quite close together, but the tomb rooves had already collapsed. Some tombs cut through older tombs. Two of these tombs contained two people, who had been interred at the same time; four tombs contained two people, who had been interred one after the other; one tomb contained four people, one of whom was first interred, followed by the other three on a separate occasion. In the cases of a secondary burial, the second person was placed on top of the first body&#39;s head or feet.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<p>There are three burial zones:</p><br>
<p>Dragon Lake (龍湖)</p><br>
<p>Dragon Sea (龍海)</p><br>
<p>The location of Princess Jeonghyo&#39;s mausoleum</p><br>
<p>One robbed-out tumulus to the south-east. The inner north, east, and west walls were plastered, but the tomb had collapsed by 2012.</p><br>
<p>10 burials distributed over terraces to the east of Princess Jeonghyo&#39;s burial</p><br>
<p>Stone Kingdom (石國)</p><br>
<h3>Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo</h3><br>
<p>The Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo originally had a funerary pagoda made from brick and stone slabs, in addition to a tumulus. Only the pagodas foundations remain, which show that the pagoda was originally square, measuring 5.50x5.65 m. Below the funerary pagoda and tumulus, the princess burial comprised an entry passage, tomb entrance, internal passage, and burial chamber. The burial chamber measured 2.10x3.10 m and was built from bricks, with stone slabs forming the roof. There were originally 12 murals depicting people on the rear walls of the internal passage and north, east, and west walls of the burial chamber. The tomb was robbed and the bones of Princess Jeonghyo were scattered around the chamber, but archaeologists recovered her tombstone.</p><br>
<p>Mammoth Hot Springs is a large complex of hot springs on a hill of travertine in Yellowstone National Park adjacent to Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. It was created over thousands of years as hot water from the spring cooled and deposited calcium carbonate . Because of the huge amount of geothermal vents, travertine flourishes. Although these springs lie outside the caldera boundary, their energy has been attributed to the same magmatic system that fuels other Yellowstone geothermal areas.</p><br>
<p>The hot water that feeds Mammoth comes from Norris Geyser Basin after traveling underground via a fault line that runs through limestone and roughly parallel to the Norris-to-Mammoth road. The limestone from rock formations along the fault is the source of the calcium carbonate. Shallow circulation along this corridor allows Norris&#39; superheated water to slightly cool before surfacing at Mammoth, generally at about 170 &deg;F. Algae living in the warm pools have tinted the travertine shades of brown, orange, red, and green.</p><br>
<p>Thermal activity here is extensive both over time and distance. The thermal flows show much variability with some variations taking place over periods ranging from decades to days. Terrace Mountain at Mammoth Hot Springs is the largest known carbonate-depositing spring in the world. The most famous feature at the springs is the Minerva Terrace, a series of travertine terraces. The terraces have been deposited by the spring over many years but, due to recent minor earthquake activity, the spring vent has shifted, rendering the terraces dry.</p><br>
<p>The Mammoth Terraces extend all the way from the hillside, across the Parade Ground, and down to Boiling River. The Mammoth Hotel, as well as all of Fort Yellowstone, is built upon an old terrace formation known as Hotel Terrace. There was some concern when construction began in 1891 on the fort site that the hollow ground would not support the weight of the buildings. Several large sink holes (fenced off) can be seen out on the Parade Ground. This area has been thermally active for several thousand years.</p><br>
<p>The Mammoth area exhibits much evidence of glacial activity from the Pinedale Glaciation. The summit of Terrace Mountain is covered with glacial till, thereby dating the travertine formation there to earlier than the end of the Pinedale Glaciation. Several thermal kames, including Capitol Hill and Dude Hill, are major features of the Mammoth Village area. Ice-marginal stream beds are in evidence in the small, narrow valleys where Floating Island Lake and Phantom Lake are found. In Gardner Canyon one can see the old, sorted gravel bed of the Gardner River covered by unsorted glacial till.</p><br>
<h2>Individually named thermal features</h2><br>
<p>Angel Spring 1</p><br>
<p>Angel Spring 2</p><br>
<p>Angel Spring 3</p><br>
<p>Aphrodite Terrace</p><br>
<p>Baby Terrace</p><br>
<p>Bath Lake</p><br>
<p>Blue Springs</p><br>
<p>Canary Spring</p><br>
<p>Cavern Terrace</p><br>
<p>Cedar Tree Spring</p><br>
<p>Cheops Mound</p><br>
<p>Cleopatra Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Cupid Spring</p><br>
<p>Dedolph Spring-a</p><br>
<p>Dedolph Spring-b</p><br>
<p>Dedolph Spring-c</p><br>
<p>Devil&#39;s Kitchen Springs (The Sodas)</p><br>
<p>Devils Thumb (Hot Spring)Devils Thumb</p><br>
<p>Fan Spring</p><br>
<p>Fissure Ridge</p><br>
<p>Glen Springs</p><br>
<p>Highland Terrace</p><br>
<p>Hymen Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Ladies&#39; Lake</p><br>
<p>Liberty Cap</p><br>
<p>Little Burper</p><br>
<p>Little Joker and spring</p><br>
<p>Little Lucifer</p><br>
<p>Main Spring(s) and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Marble Terrace</p><br>
<p>Minerva Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Mound Terrace</p><br>
<p>Naid Spring</p><br>
<p>Narrow Gauge Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>New Blue Spring</p><br>
<p>New Highland Terrace</p><br>
<p>New Pallette Springs</p><br>
<p>Opal Terrace and Spring (across the highway from the rest of Mammoth Hot Springs)</p><br>
<p>Orange Spring Mound</p><br>
<p>Painted Pool</p><br>
<p>Palette Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Paperpicker Spring</p><br>
<p>Poison Cave</p><br>
<p>Poison Spring (Gaseous Hot Spring)</p><br>
<p>Prospect Spring(s)</p><br>
<p>Pulpit Terrace</p><br>
<p>Rath Spring and Terrace</p><br>
<p>Reservoir Springs</p><br>
<p>River Styx-a</p><br>
<p>River Styx-b</p><br>
<p>Sidewalk Spring</p><br>
<p>Soda Spring (Bargar-Allen & Day)</p><br>
<p>Squirrel Springs and Squirrel Ridge</p><br>
<p>Sulphur Pits</p><br>
<p>Sulphur Spring</p><br>
<p>Tangerine Spring</p><br>
<p>The Buttress</p><br>
<p>The Esplanade (Hot Spring)The Esplanade</p><br>
<p>The Grottos</p><br>
<p>Trail Springs</p><br>
<p>White Elephant Back Springs & Terrace</p><br>
<p>Tulare Lake, named Laguna de Tache by the Spanish, is a freshwater dry lake with residual wetlands and marshes in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California, United States. After Lake Cahuilla disappeared in the 17th century, Tulare Lake was the largest freshwater lake west of the Mississippi River and the second-largest freshwater lake entirely in the United States , based upon surface area. A remnant of Pleistocene-era Lake Corcoran, Tulare Lake dried up after its tributary rivers were diverted for agricultural irrigation and municipal water uses.</p><br>
<p>The lake was named for the tule rush (Schoenoplectus acutus) that lined the marshes and sloughs of its shores. The lake was part of a 13,670 square miles partially endorheic basin, at the south end of the San Joaquin Valley, where it received water from the Kern, Tule, and Kaweah Rivers, as well as from southern distributaries of the Kings. It was separated from the rest of the San Joaquin Valley by tectonic subsidence and alluvial fans extending out from Los Gatos Creek in the Coast Ranges and the Kings River in the Sierra Nevada. Above a threshold elevation of 207 to 210 feet, it overflowed into the San Joaquin River. This happened in 19 of 29 years from 1850 to 1878. No overflows occurred after 1878 due to increasing diversions of tributary waters for agricultural irrigation and municipal water uses, and by 1899, the lake was dry except for residual wetlands and occasional floods.</p><br>
<p>Tulare Lake was the largest of several similar lakes in its lower basin. Most of the Kern River&#39;s flow first went into Kern Lake and Buena Vista Lake via the Kern River and Kern River Slough southwest and south of the site of Bakersfield. If they overflowed, it was through the Kern River channel northwest through tule marshland and Goose Lake, into Tulare Lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For centuries, the Tachi tribe or Tache, a Yokut people, built reed boats and fished in this lake in their homeland, until after the arrival of Spanish and American colonists. The Yokut had once numbered about 70,000. They had one of the highest regional population densities in precontact North America, which was possible because of the rich habitat.</p><br>
<p>The Yokuts also hunted deer, elk, and antelope, which were numerous along the lakes shoreline. During wet years, the lake was the terminus of the Western Hemispheres southernmost Chinook salmon run via the San Joaquin River.</p><br>
<p>Even well after California became a state, Tulare Lake and its extensive marshes supported an important fishery: In 1888, in one three-month period, 73,500 pounds of fish were shipped through Hanford to San Francisco. It was also the source of a regional favorite, western pond turtles, which were relished as terrapin soup in San Francisco and elsewhere. The lake and surrounding wetlands were a significant stop for hundreds of thousands of birds migrating along the Pacific Flyway. Tulare Lake was written about by Mark Twain.</p><br>
<p>Once the largest freshwater lake west of the Great Lakes, in 1849, the lake was 1,476 km&sup2, and in 1879, 1,780 km&sup2, as its size fluctuated due to varying levels of rainfall and snowfall.</p><br>
<p>Following the floods of 1861–62 and 1867–68, the highest water on record reached between 216 and 220 ft above sea level. At that elevation, the lake overtopped the natural "spillway" (five miles west of the current community of Halls Corner on California State Route 41) and flowed northward into the sea via the Boggs and Fresno sloughs, the San Joaquin River, and San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>In February and March 1938, heavy rains flooded the San Joaquin Valley, causing Tulare Lake to break the levee near Corcoran and flood 28,000 acres of cropland.</p><br>
<p>The expression "out in the tules", referring to the 3 – sedges lining the lakeshore, is still common in the dialect of old Californian families and means "beyond far away".</p><br>
<h2>Decline</h2><br>
<p>In the wake of the United States Civil War, late 19th-century settlers drained the surrounding marshes for early agriculture. The government dammed the Kaweah, Kern, Kings, and Tule Rivers upstream in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which turned their headwaters into a system of reservoirs. In the San Joaquin Valley, the state and counties built canals to deliver that water and divert the remaining flows for agricultural irrigation and municipal water uses. Tulare Lake was nearly dry by the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Enough water remained so the Alameda Naval Air Station used Tulare Lake as an outlying seaplane base during World War II and the early years of the Cold War. Flying boats could land on Tulare Lake when landing conditions were unsafe on San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>In 1938 and 1955, the lake flooded, which prompted the construction of the Terminus and Success Dams on the Kaweah and Tule Rivers in Tulare County and Pine Flat Dam on the Kings River in Fresno County. The lake bed is now a shallow basin of fertile soil, within the Central Valley of California, the most productive agricultural region of the United States. Farmers have irrigated the area for a century, so soil salination is becoming a concern.</p><br>
<p>The destruction of the terrestrial wetlands and the lake ecosystem habitats resulted in substantial losses of terrestrial animals, plants, aquatic animals, water plants, and resident and migrating birds. Although now dry, the lake occasionally reappears during floods following unusually high levels of rainfall or snow melt, as it did in 1983 and 1997.</p><br>
<p>The Julian Alps  are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps that stretch from northeastern Italy to Slovenia, where they rise to 2,864 m at Mount Triglav, the highest peak in Slovenia and of the former Yugoslavia. They are named after Julius Caesar, who founded the municipium of Cividale del Friuli at the foot of the mountains. A large part of the Julian Alps is included in Triglav National Park. The second highest peak of the range, the 2,775 m high Jôf di Montasio, lies in Italy.</p><br>
<p>The Julian Alps cover an estimated 4,400 km (of which 1,542 km lies in Italy). They are located between the Sava Valley and Canale Valley. They are divided into the Eastern and Western Julian Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Eastern Julian Alps</h2><br>
<p>There are many peaks in the Eastern Julian Alps over 2,000 m high, and they are mainly parts of ridges. The most prominent peaks are visible by their height and size. There are high plains on the eastern border like Pokljuka, Mežakla and Jelovica.</p><br>
<p>The main peaks by height are the following:</p><br>
<p>Triglav 2,864 m – the highest mountain and the coat of arms of Slovenia</p><br>
<p>Škrlatica 2,740 m</p><br>
<p>Mangart 2,679 m</p><br>
<p>Jalovec 2,645 m</p><br>
<p>Razor 2,601 m</p><br>
<p>Kanjavec 2,568 m</p><br>
<p>Prisojnik 2,546 m</p><br>
<p>Prestreljenik 2,499 m</p><br>
<p>Špik 2,472 m</p><br>
<p>Tosc 2,275 m</p><br>
<p>Krn 2,244 m</p><br>
<h2>Western Julian Alps</h2><br>
<p>The Western Julian Alps cover a much smaller area, and are located mainly in Italy. Only the Kanin group lies in part in Slovenia.</p><br>
<p>The main peaks by height are:</p><br>
<p>Jôf di Montasio (2,755 m)</p><br>
<p>Jof Fuart (2,666 m)</p><br>
<p>High Mount Kanin (2,582 m)</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>Important passes of the Julian Alps are:</p><br>
<p>The Vršič Pass, 1,611 m (5,826 feet), links the Sava and Soča valleys. It is the highest mountain road pass in Slovenia.</p><br>
<p>The Predil Pass (links Villach via Tarvisio and Bovec to Gorizia), paved road 1,156 m (3,792 feet)</p><br>
<p>The Hrušica Plateau at the Postojna Gate: (links Ljubljana to Gorizia), paved road 883 m (2,897 feet)</p><br>
<p>The Pontebba Pass (links Villach via Tarvisio and Pontebba to Udine), railway, paved road, 797 m (2,615 feet)</p><br>
<p>Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth most-populous island in the Philippines. with a total land area of 12,011 km&sup2; and with a total population of 4,477,247. The City of Iloilo is the largest settlement on the island, with a total population of 447,992 inhabitants. It is a triangular island, located in the western part of the Visayas. It is about 100 mi across, it is divided into four provinces: Aklan, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo, all in the Western Visayas Region. It is located southeast of the island of Mindoro and northwest of Negros, separated by the Guimaras Strait. Between Panay and Negros lie the island-province of Guimaras. To the north and northeast is the Sibuyan Sea and the islands of Romblon; to the west and southwest is the Sulu Sea and Palawan and to the south is Panay Gulf. Panay is the only main island in Visayas whose provinces don&#39;t bear the name of the island.</p><br>
<p>The island, bisected by the Central Panay Mountain Range, the longest mountain range on the island, it has many rivers including Panay River, Jalaur River, Aklan River, Sibalom River, Tigum River, Iloilo River, Kangaranan River, Dalanas River, Paliwan River, Tibiao River, Kairawan River and Ibajay River. Panay River, is the longest river in the island. Mount Madia-as in Culasi, Antique, is the highest peak on the island with an elevation of 2,117 m above sea level. Mount Nangtud, in the border of Barbaza, Antique and Jamindan, Capiz, is the second-highest mountain in Panay, standing at 2,073 m above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before 1212, Panay was called Simsiman. The community is located at the shores of the Ulian River and was linked by a creek. The creek provided salt to the Ati people as well as animals which lick the salt out of the salty water. Coming from the root word "simsim", "simsimin" means "to lick something to eat or to drink", thus the place was called Simsiman.</p><br>
<p>During the time of Datu Pulpulan, father of the Ati chief Marikudo, the island was called Aninipay from words "ani" to harvest and "nipay", a hairy grass abundant in the whole Panay. The hair of this grass though short is very sharp and easily prick the skin as barbs and is very difficult to remove. Once the barbs stick to the skin it can cause an extreme skin irritation. For this reason, Datu Pulpulan enacted a law that whoever among the Atis will use the nipay grass to endanger others will face death as punishment.</p><br>
<p>When the Malay settlers arrived, they call the island Madia-as or Madja-as after the highest mountain in Panay, thought to be the sacred dwellings of the deities Bulalakaw, Kaptan, Sidapa and where the dead were thought to be judged. The picturesque mountain which stood majestically in the area was thought to be the sacred place of Bululakaw, their supreme god or bathala. The island was so named by the Malay settlers due to the splendid beauty and allure of Mount Madiaas / Madja-as.</p><br>
<p>A Spaniard named Gonzalo Ronquillo reached the island and also gave the name Pan hay which means "there&#39;s a bread (Pan)" in the island. The place was then called Pan-hay which eventually became Panay.</p><br>
<p>Panay was the seat of the ancient Confederation of Madja-as—the first pre-Hispanic Philippine state within the Visayas, and the second Srivijayan colony in the archipelago, next to the Sulu Archipelago between Mindanao and Sabah. The island is purportedly named after the state of Pannai which was a militant-country fronting the strait of Malacca and responsible for policing the shipping of the area as well as expelling invasions from Arabs, Indians and Chinese until the state was felled by a surprise attack from the back-flank emanating from the Tamil-occupied capital of Srivijaya. Madja-as was established by nine rebel datus or high officials connected with the court of Brunei, who were forced to leave that are on account of enmity of the Rajah at that time ruling the land. The datus, together with their wives and children, as well as few faithful servants and followers were secretly escorted out of the country by the Rajah&#39;s Chief Minister, whose name was Datu Puti. The local folklore says that the name of the Bornean Rajah was Makatunao.</p><br>
<p>Their ultimate origins may be traced to the sacking of the kingdom of Pannai at North Sumatra by the Chola dynasty who had placed puppet Rajahs on the throne after their invasion. (Hence the motive for the Sri Vijayan Datus to rebel against this, and go elsewhere). The island of Panay having been named after the dissolved kingdom of Pannai.</p><br>
<p>They embarked on sailing rafts of the type used by the Visayans (the term used in the Malay settlements, of what is now Borneo and Philippines, to refer to Srivijayans) in Sumatra and Borneo. According to tradition, which survive in the local culture of Western Visayas, this seafaring vessel is called Balangay, from which Barangay—the smallest social unit in the present-day Philippines—came from.</p><br>
<p>The semi-democratic confederation reached its peak during the 15th century under the leadership of Datu Padojinog when it warred against the Chinese Empire, the Rajahnate of Butuan, and the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao. It was also feared by the people of the Kingdom of Maynila and Tondo kingdoms. It was integrated to the Spanish Empire through pacts and treaties (c.1569) by Miguel López de Legazpi and his grandson Juan de Salcedo. During the time of their hispanization, the principalities of the Confederation were already developed settlements with distinct social structure, culture, customs, and religion. Among the archaeological proofs of the existence of this Hiligaynon nation are the artifacts found in pre-Hispanic tombs from many parts of the island, which are now in display at Iloilo Museum. Another testimony of the antiquity of this civilization is the longest and oldest epic in the region, the Hinilawod.</p><br>
<p>According to Beyer and other historians, the migration of the settlers from the collapsing Srivijayan Empire to Panay happened in this way:</p><br>
<p>Sailing northward from Borneo along the coast of Palawan, the ten Datus crossed the intervening sea, and reached the island of Panay. They landed at the point, which is near the present town of San Joaquin. They had been able to reach the place directly because their small fleet was piloted by a sailor who had previously visited these regions on a ship engaged in commerce and trade.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the expedition had landed, the Borneans came in contact with the native people of the island, who were called Atis. Some writers have interpreted these Atis as Negritos, other sources present evidence that they were not at all a dwarfed primitive people of Negrito type, but were rather tall, dark-skinned Indonesian type. These native Atis lived in villages of fairly well-constructed houses. They possessed drums and other musical instruments, as well as a variety of weapons and personal adornments, which were much superior to those known among the Negritos.</p><br>
<p>Negotiations were conducted between the newcomers and the native Atis for the possession of a wide area of land along the coast, centering on the place called Andona, at a considerable distance from the original landing place. Some of the gifts of the Visayans in exchange of those lands are spoken of as being, first, a string of gold beads so long that it touched the ground when worn and, second, a salakot, or native hat covered with gold. The term (which survive in the present Hiligaynon language) for that necklace is Manangyad, from the Hiligaynon term sangyad, which means "touching the ground when worn". There were also a variety of many beads, combs, as well as pieces of cloth for the women and fancifully decorated weapons for men. The sale was celebrated by a feast of friendship between the newcomers and the natives, following which the latter formally turned over possession of the settlement. This so-called Barter of Panay is annually commemorated in popular festivals such as Ati-atihan in Aklan and Dinagyang in Iloilo. Afterwards, a great religious ceremony was held, with a sacrifice to the settlers&#39; ancient gods performed by a priest whom they had brought with them from Borneo.</p><br>
<p>Following the religious ceremony, the priest indicated that it was the will of the gods that they should settle not at Andona, but rather at a place some distance to the east called Malandog (now a Barangay in Hamtik, Province of Antique, where there was both much fertile agricultural land and an abundant supply of fish in the sea. After nine days, the entire group of newcomers was transferred to Malandog. At this point, Datu Puti announced that he must now return to Borneo. He appointed Datu Sumakwel, the oldest, wisest and most educated of the datus, as chief of the Panayan settlement.</p><br>
<p>Two of the Datus, with their families and followers, set out with Datu Puti and voyaged northward leaving Panay. After a number of adventures, they arrived at the bay of Taal, which was also called Lake Bombon on Luzon. Datu Puti returned to Borneo by way of Mindoro and Palawan, while the rest settled in Lake Taal.</p><br>
<p>The original Panayan settlements continued to grow and later split up into three groups: one of which remained in the original district (Irong-irong), while another settled at the mouth of Aklan River in northern Panay. The third group moved to the district called Hantik. These settlements continued to exist down to the time of the Spanish regime and formed centers, around which the later population of the three provinces of Iloilo, Capiz, and Antique grew up.</p><br>
<p>An old manuscript Margitas of uncertain date (discovered by the anthropologist H. Otley Beyer) give interesting details about the laws, government, social customs, and religious beliefs of the early Visayans, who settled Panay within the first half of the thirteenth century. The term Visayan was first applied only to them and to their settlements eastward in the island of Negros, and northward in the smaller islands, which now compose the province of Romblon. In fact, even at the early part of Spanish colonialization of the Philippines, the Spaniards used the term Visayan only for these areas. While the people of Cebu, Bohol, and Leyte were for a long time known only as Pintados. The name Visayan was later extended to them because, as several of the early writers state, their languages are closely allied to the Visayan dialect of Panay.</p><br>
<p>Grabiel Ribera, captain of the Spanish royal infantry in the Philippine Islands, also distinguished Panay from the rest of the Pintados Islands. In his report (dated 20 March 1579) regarding a campaign to pacify the natives living along the rivers of Mindanao (a mission he received from Dr. Francisco de Sande, Governor and Captain-General of the Archipelago), Ribera mentioned that his aim was to make the inhabitants of that island "vassals of King Don Felipe… as are all the natives of the island of Panay, the Pintados Islands, and those of the island of Luzon…"</p><br>
<p>During the early part of the colonial period in the Archipelago, the Spaniards led by Miguel López de Legazpi transferred their camp from Cebu to Panay in 1569. On 5 June 1569, Guido de Lavezaris, the royal treasurer in the Archipelago, wrote to Philip II reporting about the Portuguese attack to Cebu in the preceding autumn. A letter from another official, Andres de Mirandaola (dated three days later, 8 June), also described briefly this encounter with the Portuguese. The danger of another attack led the Spaniards to remove their camp from Cebu to Panay, which they considered a safer place. Legazpi himself, in his report to the Viceroy in New Spain (dated 1 July 1569), mentioned the same reason for the relocation of Spaniards to Panay. It was in Panay that the conquest of Luzon was planned, and later launched on 8 May 1570.</p><br>
<p>There are legends on how the island itself came to be called Panay. It was, however, once referred as Aninipay by the indigenous Aetas, after a plant that abounded in the island. Later, the Malay settlers (most probably from the fallen Srivijayan State of Pannai), who first arrived in the island in the 12th century, called it Madja-as.</p><br>
<p>Another legend has it that Legazpi and his men, in search of food as they moved away from Cebu, exclaimed upon seeing the island, "Pan hay en esta isla"!. So they established their first settlement in the island at the mouth of the Banica River in Capiz, and called it Pan-ay. This was the second Spanish settlement in the Philippines, after San Miguel, Cebu.</p><br>
<h3>The account of early Spanish explorers about Panay and its People</h3><br>
<p>During the early part of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish Augustinian Friar Gaspar de San Agustín, O.S.A. described Panay as: "…very similar to that of Sicily in its triangular form, as well as in it fertility and abundance of provision. It is the most populated island after Manila and Mindanao, and one of the largest (with over a hundred leagues of coastline). In terms of fertility and abundance, it is the first. It is very beautiful, very pleasant, and full of coconut palms… Near the river Alaguer (Halaur), which empties into the sea two leagues from the town of Dumangas…, in the ancient times, there was a trading center and a court of the most illustrious nobility in the whole island." Padre Francisco Colin (1592-1660), an early Jesuit missionary and Provincial of his Order in the Philippines also records in the chronicles of the Society of Jesus (published later in 1663 as Labor euangelica) that Panay is the island which is most abundant and fertile.</p><br>
<p>Miguel de Luarca, who was among the first Spanish settlers in the Island, made one of the earliest account about Panay and its people according to a Westerner&#39;s point of view. In June 1582, while he was in Arevalo (Iloilo), he wrote in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas the following observations:</p><br>
<p>The island is the most fertile and well-provisioned of all the islands discovered, except the island of Luzon: for it is exceedingly fertile, and abounds in rice, swine, fowls, wax, and honey; it produces also a great quantity of cotton and abacá fiber.</p><br>
<p>"The villages are very close together, and the people are peaceful and open to conversion. The land is healthful and well-provisioned, so that the Spaniards who are stricken in other islands go thither to recover their health."</p><br>
<p>"The natives are healthy and clean, and although the island of Cebu is also healthful and had a good climate, most of its inhabitants are always afflicted with the itch and buboes. In the island of Panay, the natives declare that no one of them had ever been afflicted with buboes until the people from Bohol – who, as we said above, abandoned Bohol on account of the people of Maluco – came to settle in Panay, and gave the disease to some of the natives. For these reasons the governor, Don Gonzalo Ronquillo, founded the town of Arevalo, on the south side of this island; for the island runs north and south, and on that side live the majority of the people, and the villages are near this town, and the land here is more fertile." This probably explains why there are reference of presence of Pintados in the Island.</p><br>
<p>"The island of Panay provides the city of Manila and other places with a large quantity of rice and meat…"... "As the island contains great abundance of timber and provisions, it has almost continuously had a shipyard on it, as is the case of the town of Arevalo, for galleys and fragatas. Here the ship Visaya was launched."</p><br>
<p>Another Spanish chronicler in the early Spanish period, Dr. Antonio de Morga (Year 1609) is also responsible for recording other Visayan customs. Customs such as Visayans&#39; affinity for singing among their warrior-castes as well as the playing of gongs and bells in naval battles.</p><br>
<p>Their customary method of trading was by bartering one thing for another, such as food, cloth, cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields, slaves, fishing-grounds, and palm-trees (both nipa and wild). Sometimes a price intervened, which was paid in gold, as agreed upon, or in metal bells brought from China. These bells they regard as precious jewels; they resemble large pans and are very sonorous. They play upon these at their feasts, and carry them to the war in their boats instead of drums and other instruments.</p><br>
<p>The early Dutch fleet commander Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge called at Panay in 1607. He mentions a town named "Oton" on the island where there were "18 Spanish soldiers with a number of other Spanish inhabitants so that there may be 40 whites in all". He explained that "a lot of rice and meat is produced there, with which they supply Manila."</p><br>
<p>The island lent its name to several United States Navy vessels including the USS Panay (PR-5), sunk in 1937 by the Japanese in the Panay incident.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mount Madia-as, is the highest point in Panay Island standing at 6,946 ft. (2,117 m ) above sea level, located in the Northern province of Antique. Boracay is an island 2 km to the northwest tip of Panay Island and part of Aklan province, is a popular tourist destination and one of the best island in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Administrative divisions</h3><br>
<p>The island is covered by 4 provinces, 92 municipalities, and, 3 cities (93 municipalities if the associated islands of Caluya are included), all under the jurisdiction of the Western Visayas region.</p><br>
<h3>Caves</h3><br>
<p>This survey was made possible through the help of the Victoria Archaeological Society (VAS) who in 1975 offered their assistance into surveying the Island of Panay.</p><br>
<h4>Lapuz Lapuz</h4><br>
<p>Lapuz Lapuz Cave is located in the village of Moroboro in Dingle, Iloilo. Lapuz Lapuz is named so because it has an entrance from either end. It is approximately 90 m long and located in a mountainous terrain. Its closest source of water is Butac Cave; next closest is the Jalaur river. It was occupied about 800 years ago. Used for no more than 200 years; occupied intensively occasionally rather than continuously.</p><br>
<p>Cultural layers are strongly alkaline. Cultural sediments are mostly clay and silty foam with some debris from the roof of the cave. A significant number of this must have come from the outside, possibly due to erosion or due to large amounts of leaching.</p><br>
<p>Two species of bat inhabit Lapuz Lapuz cave: species Eonycteris Longicaudea and genus Pipistrellus. Based on archaeological evidence, remains of larger animals were dumped in the rear of the cave while the bats were dumped near the entrance of the cave. Deer, Pig, Civet, Rat, Monkey, Lizard, Snake, Turtle, Crab, Frog and Fish remains were found as well.</p><br>
<p>Earthenware found was most likely shaped by a paddle and an anvil. The paddles mostly used for decorative than utilitarian purposes. Most sherds appear to have been used for cooking, because its parts are blackened to some extent; deposits of carbon also found inside the pots. The other sherds were used either as bowls or goblets. Most of the vessels were made in the Philippines. Due to the absence of beads, other ornaments and high pottery densities, it could be concluded that the cave was once a transitory hunting and gathering camp.</p><br>
<p>Snail shells found are mainly of the genera Rhysota, Helicostyla, Cyclophorus and Obba. The most often occurring of which is Rhysota, mainly because it’s the most economic snail. Rhysota has the highest yield of meat for the weight of the shell compared to the other genera. Rhysota is also the most occurring unlike Helicostyla. Unlike the genera Thiara which requires a drier month for it to be collected from the banks of the nearest river, Rhysota is more accessible. This diet could be explained by the fact that the hunters hunted extensively and so they had to rely on a diet of molluscs.</p><br>
<p>Majority of the waste flakes are made from chert. The presence of waterworn cobbles suggests that most of the material used came from a gravel bed such as those found in the Jalaud river. Most of the stone tools were used for butchering, hunting, processing and manufacturing of bone/antler tools</p><br>
<h4>Naulan</h4><br>
<p>Naulan Cave is situated at the foot of Mt. Agmasibes in Barangay Concepcion, Municipality of Dumalag, Capiz. It is around 1.5 km west of the Panay river, the Panay river being sandwiched between rugged limestone mountains (Mt. Paginraon and Mt. Agbadiang). Naulan cave is 18 m long and 5 m outward. It is estimated to be 800 B.P. old.</p><br>
<p>There are three caves within the vicinity, all of which are habitable by humans but doesn’t show any evidence of human habitation. This is probably because the Naulan rock shelter has a more accommodating environment. No sources of water have been found in the immediate vicinity of the caves or the rock shelter.</p><br>
<p>Sediments are highly alkaline, favoring the preservation of bone. There is approximately 120 cm of deposit, fairly uniform in depth. The deposit is mostly midden, containing concentrations of bone, shell, some stone and little charcoal</p><br>
<p>Thiara Tuberculata composes 78% weight wise and Rhysota composes 7-15% of the total weight of shells. However, Rhysota still significantly contributes to the total meat weight. Naulan Cave’s taxonomy is the same with the Lapuz Lapuz cave except for the lack of civets. In terms of animals, the major target was deer for most of the habitation while pig was being targeted more during the later years. Like Lapuz Lapuz, Naulan was also a hunting assemblage where animals were butchered and their bones broken into splinters by some form of heat treatment.</p><br>
<p>The earthenware found inside the cave were polished utilitarian vessels, mainly for cooking. For the rest of the habitation of the cave, there were no changes in the design and function of the earthenware. Minerals such as hornblende, quartz and a red crypto-crystalline quartz were found as inclusions of the sherds.</p><br>
<h4>Langub Cave</h4><br>
<p>Langub Cave can be found in Barrio Dolores, Dumalag, Capiz. It is southeast of Naulan and surrounded by a light rainforest. Its entrance is 27 m wide and 20 meters although the eastern side is blocked by a rock fall. The floor of the cave is flat but filled with damp and slippery clay. It could be 4000-1000 B.P. old. Like Naulan and Lapuz Lapuz cave, Langub was a hunter-gatherer site where the hunting parties brought earthenware occasionally.</p><br>
<p>There were six species present in the analysis of the mollusks. However, Rhysota rhea and Thiara tuberculata were the most common species found. Rhysota rhea composes 95% of shell meat contribution meaning there was a consistent collection of this species from the forest environment. Thiara, on the other hand, is due to the fact that the site is closer to a spring where they were collected.</p><br>
<p>Of the bones found, most of these were for smaller animals such as bats. Remains of rodent, reptile, pig, civet, fish and deer were found. The cave shows signs of butchering but no presence of bone or antler tools.</p><br>
<p>Stone tools found in the cave were made from cryptoscalline quartz, andesite, basalt and granite. Although majority of the stone tools were made from cryptoscalline quartz. Most tools found were utilitarian. Earthenware pottery was rare.</p><br>
<h4>Gui-ub Cave</h4><br>
<p>Gui-ub cave is a large rock shelter found in Barangay Tibayog, Calinog, Iloilo. It is located in the mountain chain dividing Iloilo from Antique. Gui-ub’s location could have been a very rich source of resources before deforestation occurred around the 1940s.</p><br>
<p>The floor of the shelter is flat and dry. The walls are made up of a coarse conglomerate, which weathered and eventually covered the floor with small waterworn pebbles. Floor deposits are full of small holes because of termites.</p><br>
<p>Mollusc analysis showed that there were very few shells present in the layers. Shells seem to be of little importance to the economy of Gui-ub cave. Skeletal analysis shows remains of pig, deer, monkey, civet, cat, dog, bat, reptile, fish, rat, bird and crustacean. The primary targets of the people residing in Gui-ub were mostly large animals (pig and deer) and only took smaller animals when the opportunity presents itself. The presence of two young dogs suggests that they were probably domesticated. A large reptilian vertebrae was also found which can only come from a reptile as large as a crocodile. It could have been a large, extinct species of turtle.</p><br>
<p>Earthenware, in general, were utilitarian, smoothed, polished, unslipped and fired at low temperatures. They were probably shaped with a paddle and an anvil. Two sherds have charcoal deposits indicating that these were once charcoal burners or stoves.</p><br>
<p>Most of the evidence uncovered was made of cryptocrystalline quartz. The others were composed of hornfels and andesite.</p><br>
<h4>Pilar</h4><br>
<p>The pilar caves is located in Pilar, Capiz. A large amount of caves were damaged due to guano digging. In search of a site with archaeological artifacts in their original places, an overhang was examined.</p><br>
<p>The overhang was dated based on a charcoal sample found. The site was occupied just before the Spanish occupation (1521). Inhabitants of the Pilar site were also hunter gatherers like the inhabitants of other sites in Panay Island. The difference is that the Pilar people had metal to arm their weapons with</p><br>
<p>By weight the most important species are Turritela, Melanoides, Tegillarca and Ostrea for the more recent layers; Nerita, Ostrea and Melanoides for the older layers. Very few of the shells are burnt.</p><br>
<p>Remains of pig, deer, rodent, reptile, monkey, crab and fish were found. Presence of human molars and mammal long bone fragments implies the possibility of the place being used as a burial site. The limited remains of the animals such as the pig suggests that the animals could have been domesticated for food.</p><br>
<p>Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump is a buffalo jump located where the foothills of the Rocky Mountains begin to rise from the prairie 18 km northwest of Fort Macleod, Alberta, Canada on highway 785. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and home of a museum of Blackfoot culture. Joe Crowshoe Sr.  – Aapohsoy’yiis  – a ceremonial Elder of the Piikani Nation in southern Alberta, was instrumental in the development of the site. The Joe Crow Shoe Sr. Lodge is dedicated to his memory. He dedicated his life to preserving Aboriginal culture and promoting the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people and in 1998 was awarded the National Aboriginal Achievement Award for "saving the knowledge and practices of the Blackfoot people."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The buffalo jump was used for 5,500 years by the indigenous peoples of the plains to kill buffalo by driving them off the 11 metre (36 foot) high cliff. Before the late introduction of horses, the Blackfoot drove the buffalo from a grazing area in the Porcupine Hills about 3 km west of the site to the "drive lanes", lined by hundreds of cairns, by dressing up as coyotes and wolves. These specialized "buffalo runners" were young men trained in animal behavior to guide the buffalo into the drive lanes. Then, at full gallop, the buffalo would fall from the weight of the herd pressing behind them, breaking their legs and rendering them immobile. The cliff itself is about 300 metres (1000 feet) long, and at its highest point drops 10 metres into the valley below. The site was in use at least 6,000 years ago, and the bone deposits are 12 metres (39 feet) deep. After falling off the cliff, the injured buffalo were finished off by other Blackfoot warriors at the cliff base armed with spears and clubs. The carcasses were then processed at a nearby camp. The camp at the foot of the cliffs provided the people with everything they needed to process a buffalo carcass, including fresh water. The buffalo carcass was used for a variety of purposes, from tools made from the bone, to the hide used to make dwellings and clothing. The importance of the site goes beyond just providing food and supplies. After a successful hunt, the wealth of food allowed the people to enjoy leisure time and pursue artistic and spiritual interests. This increased the cultural complexity of the society.</p><br>
<p>In Blackfoot, the name for the site is Estipah-skikikini-kots. According to legend, a young Blackfoot wanted to watch the buffalo plunge off the cliff from below, but was buried underneath the falling buffalo. He was later found dead under the pile of carcasses, where he had his head smashed in.</p><br>
<h3>World Heritage Site</h3><br>
<p>Head-Smashed-In was abandoned in the 19th century after European contact. The site was first recorded by Europeans in the 1880s, and first excavated by the American Museum of Natural History in 1938. It was designated a National Historic Site in 1968, a Provincial Historic Site in 1979, and a finally a World Heritage Site in 1981 for its testimony of prehistoric life and the customs of aboriginal people.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretive centre and museum</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 1987, the interpretive centre at Head-Smashed-In is built into the ancient sandstone cliff in naturalistic fashion. It contains five distinct levels depicting the ecology, mythology, lifestyle and technology of Blackfoot peoples within the context of available archaeological evidence, presented from the viewpoints of both aboriginal peoples and European archaeological science.</p><br>
<p>The centre also offers tipi camping and hands-on educational workshops in facets of First Nations life, such as making moccasins, drums, etc. Each year Head-Smashed-In hosts a number of special events and native festivals known throughout the world for their color, energy and authenticity, including a special Christmas festival called Heritage Through My Hands, which brings together First Nations artists and craftspeople who display a wide variety of jewelry, clothing, art and crafts. Visitors can witness traditional drumming and dancing demonstrations every Wednesday from July to August at 11 a.m and 1:30 p.m. at the centre.</p><br>
<p>There is now a permanent exhibition at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. Lost Identities: A Journey of Rediscovery made its first appearance here in 1999, but now it is back to stay. The exhibition, is a collaboration of many historical societies and museums that have given voice to otherwise silent photographs. These photographs have been unidentified for some time. But "the exhibit travel led to the Aboriginal communities" finding the voice and story behind the photographs taken in these communities.</p><br>
<p>The facility was designed by Le Blond Partnership, an architectural firm in Calgary. The design was awarded the Governor General&#39;s Gold Medal for Architecture in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Kos or Cos   is a Greek island, part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea, off the Anatolian coast of Turkey. Kos is the third largest island of the Dodecanese by area, after Rhodes and Karpathos; it has a population of 33,388 , making it the second most populous of the Dodecanese, after Rhodes.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name Kos (Κῶς, genitive Κῶ) is first attested in the Iliad, and has been in continuous use since. Other ancient names include Meropis, Cea, and Nymphaea.</p><br>
<p>In many Romance languages, Kos was formerly known as Stancho, Stanchio, or Stinco, and in Ottoman and modern Turkish it is known as İstanköy, all from the reinterpretation of the Greek expression εις την Κω to Kos; cf. the similar Istanbul, and Stimpoli, Crete. Under the rule of the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, it was known as Lango or Langò, presumably because of its length. In The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, the author misunderstands this and treats Lango and Kos as distinct islands.</p><br>
<p>In Italian, the island is known as Coo.</p><br>
<p>A person from Kos is called a "Koan" in English. The word is also an adjective, as in "Koan goods".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kos is in the Aegean Sea. Its coastline is 112 km long and it extends from west to east.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the main town and port, also called Kos, the main villages of Kos island are Kardamena, Kefalos, Tingaki, Antimachia, Mastihari, Marmari and Pyli. Smaller ones are Zia, Zipari, Platani, Lagoudi and Asfendiou.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The present municipality of Kos was created in 2011 with the merger of three municipalities, which became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Dikaios</p><br>
<p>Irakleides</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 290.313 km, the municipal unit 67.200 km.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is the main industry in Kos, the island&#39;s beaches being the primary attraction. The main port and population centre on the island, Kos town, is also the tourist and cultural centre, with whitewashed buildings including many hotels, restaurants and a number of nightclubs forming the Kos town "barstreet". The seaside village of Kardamena is a popular resort for young holidaymakers (primarily from the United Kingdom and Scandinavia) and has a large number of bars and nightclubs.</p><br>
<p>Farming is the second principal occupation, with the main crops being grapes, almonds, figs, olives, and tomatoes, along with wheat and corn. Cos lettuce may be grown here, but the name is unrelated.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In Homer&#39;s Iliad, a contingent of Koans fought for the Greeks in the Trojan War.</p><br>
<p>In classical mythology the founder-king of Kos was Merops, hence "Meropian Kos" is included in the archaic Delian amphictyony listed in the 7th-century Homeric hymn to Delian Apollo; the island was visited by Heracles.</p><br>
<p>The island was originally colonised by the Carians. The Dorians invaded it in the 11th century BC, establishing a Dorian colony with a large contingent of settlers from Epidaurus, whose Asclepius cult made their new home famous for its sanatoria. The other chief sources of the island&#39;s wealth lay in its wines and, in later days, in its silk manufacture.</p><br>
<p>Its early history–as part of the religious-political amphictyony that included Lindos, Kamiros, Ialysos, Cnidus and Halicarnassus, the Dorian Hexapolis (hexapolis means six cities in Greek),–is obscure. At the end of the 6th century, Kos fell under Achaemenid domination but rebelled after the Greek victory at the Battle of Mycale in 479. During the Greco-Persian Wars, before it twice expelled the Persians, it was ruled by Persian-appointed tyrants, but as a rule it seems to have been under oligarchic government. In the 5th century, it joined the Delian League, and, after the revolt of Rhodes, it served as the chief Athenian station in the south-eastern Aegean (411–407). In 366 BC, a democracy was instituted. In 366 BC, the capital was transferred from Astypalaia (at the west end of the island near the modern village of Kefalos) to the newly built town of Kos, laid out in a Hippodamian grid. After helping to weaken Athenian power, in the Social War (357-355 BC), it fell for a few years to the king Mausolus of Caria.</p><br>
<p>Proximity to the east gave the island first access to imported silk thread. Aristotle mentions silk weaving conducted by the women of the island. Silk production of garments was conducted in large factories by women slaves.</p><br>
<p>In the Hellenistic period, Kos attained the zenith of its prosperity. Its alliance was valued by the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt, who used it as a naval outpost to oversee the Aegean. As a seat of learning, it arose as a provincial branch of the museum of Alexandria, and became a favorite resort for the education of the princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty. During the Hellenistic age, there was a medical school; however, the theory that this school was founded by Hippocrates (see below) during the Classical age is an unwarranted extrapolation.</p><br>
<p>Diodorus Siculus (xv. 76) and Strabo (xiv. 657) describe it as a well-fortified port. Its position gave it a high importance in Aegean trade; while the island itself was rich in wines of considerable fame. Under Alexander the Great and the Egyptian Ptolemies the town developed into one of the great centers in the Aegean; Josephus quotes Strabo to the effect that Mithridates was sent to Kos to fetch the gold deposited there by queen Cleopatra of Egypt. Herod is said to have provided an annual stipend for the benefit of prize-winners in the athletic games, and a statue was erected there to his son Herod the Tetrarch ("C. I. G." 2502 ). Paul briefly visited here according to.</p><br>
<p>Except for occasional incursions by corsairs and some severe earthquakes, the island has rarely had its peace disturbed. Following the lead of its larger neighbour, Rhodes, Kos generally displayed a friendly attitude toward the Romans; in 53 AD it was made a free city. It was known in antiquity for the manufacture of transparent light dresses, the coae vestes. The island of Kos also featured a provincial library during the Roman period. The island first became a center for learning during the Ptolemaic dynasty, and Hippocrates, Apelles, Philitas and possibly Theocritus came from the area. An inscription lists people who made contributions to build the library in the 1st century AD. One of the people responsible for the library&#39;s construction was the Kos doctor Gaiou Stertinou Xenofontos, who lived in Rome and was the personal physician of the Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero.</p><br>
<p>The bishopric of Kos was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Rhodes. Its bishop Meliphron attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Eddesius was one of the minority Eastern bishops who withdrew from the Council of Sardica in about 344 and set up a rival council at Philippopolis. Iulianus went to the synod held in Constantinople in 448 in preparation for the Council of Chalcedon of 451, in which he participated as a legate of Pope Leo I, and he was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of the Roman province of Insulae sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian with regard to the killing of Proterius of Alexandria. Dorotheus took part in a synod in 518. Georgius was a participant of the Third Council of Constantinople in 680–681. Constantinus went to the Photian Council of Constantinople (879). Under Byzantine rule, apart from the participation of its bishops in councils, the island&#39;s history remains obscure. It was governed by a droungarios in the 8th–9th centuries, and seems to have acquired some importance in the 11th and 12th centuries: Nikephoros Melissenos began his uprising here, and in the middle of the 12th century, it was governed by a scion of the ruling Komnenos dynasty, Nikephoros Komnenos.</p><br>
<p>Today the metropolis of Kos remains under the direct authority of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, rather than the Church of Greece, and is also listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<p>Following the Fourth Crusade, Kos passed under Genoese control, although it was retaken in ca. 1224 and kept for a while by the Empire of Nicaea. In the 1320s, Kos nominally formed part of the realm of Martino Zaccaria, but was most likely in the hands of Turkish corsairs until ca. 1337, when the Knights Hospitaller took over the island. The last Hospitaller governor of the island was Piero de Ponte.</p><br>
<p>The Ottoman Empire captured the island in early 1523. The Ottomans ruled Kos for almost 400 years, until it was transferred to the Kingdom of Italy in 1912 after the Italo-Turkish War. The Italians developed the infrastructures of the island, after the ruinous earthquake of 23 April 1933, which destroyed a great part of the old city and damaged many new buildings. Architect Rodolfo Petracco drew up the new city plan, transforming the old quarters into an archaeological park, and dividing the new city into a residential, an administrative, and a commercial area., In World War II, the island, as Italian possession, was part of the Axis. It was controlled by Italian troops until the Italian surrender in 1943. On that occasion, 100 Italian officers who had refused to join the Germans were executed. British and German forces then clashed for control of the island in the Battle of Kos as part of the Dodecanese Campaign, in which the Germans were victorious. German troops occupied the island until 1945, when it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom, which ceded it to Greece in 1947 following the Paris peace treaty.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1920s about 3,700 Turks lived in Kos city, slightly less than 50% of the population, settled mainly in the west part of the city.</p><br>
<p>A 21-month British child disappeared in 1991, triggering an extensive investigation and international publicity. The child has never been found.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The island is part of a chain of mountains from which it became separated after earthquakes and subsidence that occurred in ancient times. These mountains include Kalymnos and Kappari which are separated by an underwater chasm c. 70 m (40 fathoms deep), as well as the volcano of Nisyros and the surrounding islands.</p><br>
<p>There is a wide variety of rocks in Kos which is related to its geographical formation. Prominent among these are the Quaternary layers in which the fossil remains of mammals such as horses, hippopotami and elephants have been found. The fossilised molar of an elephant of gigantic proportions was presented to the Paleontology Museum of the University of Athens.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Turks</h3><br>
<p>There is a Turkish community in Kos, whose population has been estimated at about 2,000.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>The main religion practiced is Greek Orthodoxy. Kos has one of the four cathedrals in the Dodecanese. There is a Roman Catholic church on the island. There is a mosque for the Turkish-speaking Muslim community.</p><br>
<p>The synagogue is no longer used for religious ceremonies as the Jewish community of Kos was targeted for destruction by occupying Nazi forces in World War II. It has, however, been restored and is maintained with all religious symbols intact and is now used by the Municipality of Kos for various events, mainly cultural.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<h3>Castles</h3><br>
<p>The island has a 14th-century fortress at the entrance to its harbour, erected in 1315 by the Knights Hospitaller, and another from the Byzantine period in Antimachia.</p><br>
<h3>Ancient Agora</h3><br>
<p>The ancient market place of Kos was considered one of the biggest in the ancient world. It was the commercial and commanding centre at the heart of the ancient city. It was organized around a spacious rectangular yard 50 m wide and 300 m long. It began in the Northern area and ended up south on the central road (Decumanus) which went through the city. The northern side connected to the city wall towards the entrance to the harbour. Here there was a monumental entrance. On the eastern side there were shops. In the first half of the 2nd century BC, the building was extended toward the interior yard. The building was destroyed in an earthquake in 469 AD.</p><br>
<p>In the southern end of the market, there was a round building with a Roman dome and a workshop which produced pigments including "Egyptian Blue". Coins, treasures, and copper statues from Roman times were later uncovered by archeologists. In the western side excavations led to the findings of rooms with mosaic floors which showed beastfights, a theme quite popular in Kos.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The ancient physician Hippocrates is thought to have been born on Kos, and in the center of the town is the Plane Tree of Hippocrates, a dream temple where the physician is traditionally supposed to have taught. The limbs of the now elderly tree are supported by scaffolding. The small city is also home to the International Hippocratic Institute and the Hippocratic Museum dedicated to him. Near the Institute are the ruins of Asklepieion, where Herodicus taught Hippocrates medicine.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Epicharmus of Kos (6th-5th century BC), comic playwright</p><br>
<p>Hippocrates (5th century BC), "father of medicine".</p><br>
<p>Apelles (4th century BC), painter.</p><br>
<p>Philitas of Cos (4th century BC), poet and scholar.</p><br>
<p>Michael Kefalianos, professional bodybuilder.</p><br>
<p>Marika Papagika, early 20th century singer.</p><br>
<p>Kostas Skandalidis, former Interior Minister of Greece and close associate of Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou.</p><br>
<p>Al Campanis, Major League Baseball player and executive.</p><br>
<p>Stergos Marinos, international footballer currently playing for Panathinaikos.</p><br>
<p>Şükrü Kaya, Turkish politician, one of the perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide, served later as Minister of the Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Kos is the location of Skirmisher Publishing&#39;s and also appears in a number of its affiliated adventures and works of fiction.</p><br>
<p>Aztalan State Park is a Wisconsin state park in the Town of Aztalan, Jefferson County, at latitude N 43° 4′ and longitude W 88° 52′. Established in 1952, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park covers 172 acres  along the Crawfish River.</p><br>
<p>Aztalan is the site of an ancient Mississippian culture settlement that flourished during the 10th to 13th centuries. The indigenous people constructed massive earthwork mounds for religious and political purposes. They were part of a widespread culture with important settlements throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Their trading network extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast, and into the southeast of the present-day United States.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-history (900–1300)</h2><br>
<p>Aztalan was first settled around 900 by a Native American culture known as the Middle Mississippian Tradition. The chief center of a Middle Mississippian settlement is at Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, a city that at its peak had 20,000–30,000 people. This was not surpassed by Europeans in North America until after 1800. These settlements are characterized by the construction of mounds, stockades, and houses, by decorated Mississippian culture pottery and agricultural practices. There are also elements of the Woodland culture found there.</p><br>
<p>The residents had long-distance trading relationships with other settlements, linked by their use of the rivers for transportation. For example, items found at the settlement include copper from Michigan&#39;s Upper Peninsula, shells from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and stone such as Mill Creek chert from other areas of the Midwest.</p><br>
<p>Sometime between 1200 and 1300, the Aztalan settlement was abandoned. Archeologists and historians surmise they may have outgrown environmental resources, or encountered more warfare from other cultures, but do not know for sure. The Little Ice Age occurred soon after 1300 and may have contributed to farming difficulties, putting too much stress on the local chiefdoms.</p><br>
<h3>Life in Aztalan</h3><br>
<p>Most of the residents lived in circular or rectangular houses which they built between the river and the eastern secondary wall. The placement of the structures suggests that the layout was planned. The dwellings were built around a central ceremonial plaza likely used for rituals and public gatherings, as has been found at other similar locations. Posts for the house frames were placed either in individual holes, or in a trench dug slightly narrower than the posts. Walls were completed with wattle and daub, a plaster mixture of grass and clay, and the roof covered with bark or thatch. The doorway usually faced south to keep out the winter&#39;s north winds. Inside, a single family slept on pole-frame beds, covered with tamarack boughs, deer skins, and furs. Sometimes a fire was kept in the middle of the house and a hole in the roof let out the smoke. Pits dug in the earthen floor of the house held stored foods such as corn, nuts, and seeds in woven bags. Perishable foods like meat were probably stored outside prior to cooking. Pits outside were also used for garbage and community resources.</p><br>
<p>The site was well chosen to provide a variety of food sources, and other resources. The staple of the diet was corn or maize, and other plants were also gathered as food, such as acorns, hickory nuts, and berries. Tobacco was grown at this time for sacred rituals, as tobacco seeds have been found at this site. The main source of meat was deer, especially in the winter. The people also caught and ate beaver, elk, fox, muskrats, and raccoons. They hunted birds and turtles, collected mussels, and caught fish in the Crawfish River directly next to the site. To help with fishing, the people set up rock barriers called fish weirs at key points, one of which is visible when the river is low. They caught catfish, bass, suckers, buffalo fish, pike, drum fish, and gar. They disposed of the thousands of shells from consumed mussels in middens. These have layers of shells several feet thick.</p><br>
<p>The people gathered most of the raw materials for tools and building in the area, and obtained others through trade from remote places. Trees nearby provided wood for posts for house walls and stockades, bows and arrow shafts, bowls and spoons, and firewood. Smaller tree branches and grass were used for bedding and roofs. Shells were used to make jewelry, beads, spoons, and digging tools. The people dug river clay which was used to fashion fired pottery. Ornamental and exotic objects, or objects made from foreign materials, are commonly associated with status.</p><br>
<h3>Physical features</h3><br>
<p>The most obvious features of Aztalan are its pyramid-shaped, flat-topped platform mounds and the stockades, believed to have served both ceremonial and defensive functions.</p><br>
<h4>Mounds</h4><br>
<p>Three platform mounds remain on the site. The largest is the one in the southwest corner of the stockade; one almost as large is located in the northwest corner. The smallest of the three is along the east side of the settlement, near the Crawfish River (labeled "West Branch of Rock River" on the plates). The hill in the southeast corner is a natural gravel knoll, not built by the inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The largest mound was built in three stages, with a set of steps leading to the top, where a structure was built over the entire flat top. The mound was covered with a clay cap, probably to enhance its appearance. Corn was stored in pits inside the structure. Scholars have several theories about why the corn was kept there, and the overall purpose of the structure. It may have been the storage facility for the entire village or storage for food just for the top village officials; it may have been used for ceremonies and rituals; or it could have been a house for the village officials. This topmost structure was rebuilt each time a larger stage of the mound was built on top of the old.</p><br>
<p>The northwestern mound, used for formal burial, was also built in three stages. A special structure, approximately 4 m by 2 m, with its long axis towards the northeast/southwest, was built on the west side of the mound. Its doorway was in its southwest corner, and the structure was covered with a mixture of clay, willow branches, and grass. The floor was covered with a mat of what may have been cattails. The bodies of ten people were placed side by side on this, with their heads toward the doorway. The bones of another person were bundled together with cord and placed near them. Once this construction was complete, and the bodies were inside, the building was burned.</p><br>
<p>The eastern mound had a large open-walled structure, about 12 m by 27 m, built on top of it, with firepits lined with white sand inside. The function of this mound and structure remain unclear.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, to the northwest of the stockaded area, a row of round mounds extends northward. When archaeologists dug in these mounds during the 1920s, they did not find the burial sites they had expected. Instead, each mound had a large post set in a pit in its center, surrounded by gravel and soil, with the pit capped with clay and gravel to hold the post steady. These mounds have been termed "marker mounds" because they may have been used to mark the site for travelers, but this is not certain. They may also have been used for announcements, message relays, or for calculations of astronomical phenomena, as has been found at other Mississippian sites, such as Cahokia.</p><br>
<h4>Stockade</h4><br>
<p>The settlement was surrounded on the north, west, and south sides by a palisade, a wall of logs set vertically into the ground. Narrow holes were dug into the ground, then the posts were lifted into position and set into the holes. The stockade was finished by people weaving flexible willow branches through the posts, and plastering the whole with a mixture of clay and grass to fill in the gaps, a technique similar to wattle and daub.</p><br>
<p>At some point, a smaller stockade was built within the outer one to delimit the dwelling areas. Archeologists have not been able to determine whether both stockades existed simultaneously, for a layered defense, or one was built after the other fell into disuse.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Increase A. Lapham, an author, scientist, and naturalist, surveyed the site on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution. He described the outer stockade as being "631 ft long at the north end, 1,149 ft long on the west side and 700 ft on the south side; making a total length of wall of 2,750 ft. The ridge or wall is about 22 ft, and from 1 ft to 5 ft) in height." It had at least 33 square bastions at regular intervals along its length, similar in form and placement to some European fortifications, in order to allow defensive warriors to cover that area by shooting arrows. In addition, others were built along the secondary walls. Rather than having a gate to protect the entrance, the builders constructed the entrance so that it was camouflaged from direct view and blended in with the wall on either side.</p><br>
<p>During the time Aztalan was inhabited, two sets of outer stockades were built. The posts of the first one eventually rotted, and the second one burned and was never rebuilt. It is not clear whether the purpose of the stockade was to keep out invaders, or if the occupants built it for another reason.</p><br>
<h2>Modern discovery (1835–1919)</h2><br>
<p>A young man named Timothy Johnson discovered the ruins of the ancient settlement in December 1835. In January 1836, N. F. Hyer conducted the first rough survey of the site, and published his discovery in the Milwaukie Advertiser of January 1837. According to Lapham:</p><br>
<p>Hyer wrote, "We are determined to preserve these ruins from being ruined." However, in 1838, President Martin Van Buren refused a request by Massachusetts statesman Edward Everett to withdraw the site from public sale, and it was sold for $22. In the following years, the surface was plowed, the mounds were leveled for easier farming, pottery shards and "Aztalan brick" were hauled away by the wagonload to fill in potholes in township roads, and souvenir hunters took numerous artifacts.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Lapham urged the preservation of the stockade. At the time, the stockade was still standing, though not in the condition it had once been.</p><br>
<h2>State park foundation and reconstruction (1919–present)</h2><br>
<p>In 1919, archeological excavations began at Aztalan under the direction of Dr. S. A. Barrett.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Landmarks Committee of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin under Publius V. Lawson started a new effort to save what remained of Aztalan, supported by the Friends of Our Native Landscape and the Wisconsin Archeological Society. They made their first purchase of some of the land in 1921, three acres (12,000 m²) west of the stockade and containing eight conical mounds, and presented it to the Wisconsin Archeological Society.</p><br>
<p>Work for preservation continued. In 1936, the state&#39;s archeological and historical societies petitioned the federal government for funds to reconstruct the stockade, without success, although during the Great Depression it funded archeological work and preservation at numerous ancient sites around the country. In 1941, the newly founded Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society began an energetic campaign to preserve the stockade area.</p><br>
<p>In 1945, the Wisconsin State Assembly passed a bill directing the State Planning Board to study the possibility of establishing a state park at Aztalan. In 1947, the Wisconsin State Legislature passed a resolution requesting the State Conservation Commission to purchase Aztalan. 120 acres (490,000 m²) were purchased to this end in 1948, and the Wisconsin Archeological Society and the Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society donated their holdings. Aztalan opened to the public as Aztalan State Park in 1952.</p><br>
<p>Aztalan was designated a registered National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. In 1968, the state reconstructed portions of the stockade wall by placing new posts in the original holes. A section of this was also covered with the wattle and daub, but this has since worn away or been removed.</p><br>
<p>The Schlern   is a mountain of the Dolomites in South Tyrol, Italy.</p><br>
<p>The peak at the north west end of the mountain (left, in the image at right) was first ascended in July 1880 by Johann Santner. It is named the Santner Spitze in his honour.</p><br>
<p>The Schlern dominates the villages of Seis am Schlern and Völs am Schlern, and the summit can be reached following the circular route marked with the number 1 from both villages.</p><br>
<p>At 1,700 m, there is the Schlernboden inn and on the summit plateau is the Schlernhaus inn 2,457 m, both open from 1 June to 15 October. The highest summit is the Petz with 2,564 m.</p><br>
<p>The Schlern is sung of in the Bozner Bergsteigerlied as one of South Tyrols landmarks. Its characteristic profile appears on the Der Schlern - Zeitschrift für Südtiroler Landeskunde (Magazine for South Tyrolean Regional Studies) and the logo pressed into Loackers wafer biscuits.</p><br>
<p>Laguna de Baý  is the largest lake in the Philippines located east of Metro Manila between the provinces of Laguna to the south and Rizal to the north. The freshwater lake has a surface area of 911–949 km² , with an average depth of about 2.8 m and an elevation of about 1 m above sea level. The lake is shaped like a stylized W, with two peninsulas jutting out from the northern shore. Between these peninsulas, the middle lobe fills the large volcanic Laguna Caldera. In the middle of the lake is the large island of Talim, which falls under the jurisdiction of the towns of Binangonan and Cardona in Rizal province.</p><br>
<p>The lake is one of the primary sources of freshwater fish in the country. Its water drains to Manila Bay via the Pasig River.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Laguna de Bay means "Lagoon of Bay" for the lakeshore town of Bay (pronounced as "Bäï"), the former provincial capital of Laguna province. Alternate spellings of the towns name include "Bae" or "Ba-i", and in the early colonial times, "Bayi" or "Vahi". Thus, the lake is sometimes spelled as "Laguna de Bae" or "Laguna de Ba-i", mostly by the locals. The town&#39;s name is believed to have come from the Tagalog word for "settlement" (bahayan), and is related to the words for "house" (bahay), "shore" (baybayin), and "boundary" (baybay), among others. The introduction of the English language during the American occupation of the Philippines, elicited confusion as the English word "bay", referring to another body of water, was mistakenly substituted to the town name that led to its mispronunciation. However, the word "Bay" in Laguna de Bay has always referred to the town.</p><br>
<p>The Spanish word Laguna refers to not just lagoons but also for freshwater lakes, aside from lago. Some examples of the worldwide usage of laguna for lakes include Laguna Chicabal in Guatemala, Laguna de Gallocanta in Spain, Laguna Catemaco in Mexico and Laguna de Leche, the largest lake in Cuba. The lake&#39;s alternate name, "Laguna Lake", refers to the Province of Laguna, the province at the southern shore of the lake. Laguna province, though, was named because of the large lake and was originally called La Laguna till the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In the pre-Hispanic era, the lake was known as "Puliran Kasumuran" (Laguna Copperplate Inscription, 900 AD), and later by "Pulilan" (Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, 1613. Pila, Laguna).</p><br>
<p>Currently, the lake is often incorrectly called "Laguna Bay," including in government websites.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The middle part of Laguna de Bay between Mount Sembrano and Talim Island, is the Laguna Caldera believed to have been formed by two major volcanic eruptions, around 1 million and 27,000-29,000 years ago. Remnants of its volcanic history are shown by the presence of series of maars around the area of Tadlac Lake and Mayondon hill in Los Baños, Laguna, another maar at the southern end of Talim Island, and a solfataric field in Jala Jala.</p><br>
<p>Laguna de Bay is a large shallow freshwater body in the heart of Luzon Island with an aggregate area of about 911 km&sup2; and a shoreline of 220 km.</p><br>
<p>The lake is fed by 45,000 km&sup2; of catchment areas and its 21 major tributaries. Among these are the Pagsanjan River which is the source of 35% of the Lakes water, the Santa Cruz River which is the source of 15% of the Lakes water, the Balanak River, the Marikina River, the Mangangate River, the Tunasan River, the San Pedro River, the Cabuyao River, the San Cristobal River, the San Juan River, the Bay, Calo and Maitem rivers in Bay, the Molawin, Dampalit and Pele rivers in Los Baños, the Pangil River, the Tanay River, the Morong River, the Siniloan River and the Sapang Baho River.</p><br>
<h2>Uses</h2><br>
<p>The lake is a multipurpose resource. In order to reduce the flooding in Manila along the Pasig River, during heavy rains, the peak water flows of the Marikina River are diverted via the Manggahan Floodway to Laguna de Bay, which serves as a temporary reservoir. In case the water level on the lake is higher than the Marikina River, the flow on the floodway is reversed, both Marikina River and the lake drain through Pasig River to Manila Bay.</p><br>
<p>The lake has been used as a navigation lane for passenger boats since the Spanish colonial era. It is also used as a source of water for the Kalayaan Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Project in Kalayaan, Laguna. Other uses include fishery, aquaculture, recreation, food support for the growing duck industry, irrigation and a "virtual" cistern for domestic, agricultural, and industrial effluents.</p><br>
<p>Known lake islands include Talim, the largest and most populated island on the lake; Calamba Island, which is completely occupied by the Wonder Island resort in Calamba, Laguna; Malahi Island which used to be the site of Maligi Island military reservation, near the southern tip of Talim; the nearby islands of Bonga and Pihan, also in Cardona; and Bay Island off the coast of Bay, Laguna, which is closely associated with the precolonial crocodile-deity myths of that town.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental issues</h2><br>
<p>At least 18 fish species are known from Laguna de Bay; none are strictly endemic to the lake, but 3 are endemic to the Philippines: Gobiopterus lacustris, Leiopotherapon plumbeus and Zenarchopterus philippinus. Aquaculture is widespread in Laguna de Bay, but often involves non-native species. Some of these have escaped and have become invasive species, representing a threat to the native fish.</p><br>
<p>Because of the problems facing and threatening the potential of the lake, then President Ferdinand Marcos signed into law Republic Act (RA) 4850 in 1966 creating the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA), the main agency tasked to oversee the programs that aimed to develop and protect Laguna de Bay. Though it started as a mere quasi-government agency with regulatory and proprietary functions, its charter was strengthened by Presidential Decree (PD) 817 in 1975 and by Executive Order (EO) 927 in 1983 to include environmental protection and jurisdiction over the surface waters of the lake basin. In 1993, by virtue of the devolution, the administrative supervision of the LLDA was transferred to the DENR by EO 149.</p><br>
<p>Government data showed that about 60% of the estimated 8.4 million people residing in the Laguna de Bay Region discharge their solid and liquid wastes indirectly to the lake through its tributaries. A large percentage of these wastes are mainly agricultural while the rest are either domestic or industrial According to DENR (1997), domestic and industrial wastes contribute almost equally at 30% each. Meanwhile, agricultural wastes take up the remaining 40%. In a recent sensitivity waste load model ran by the Laguna Lake Development Authority&#39;s (LLDA) Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) division, it revealed that 70% of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) loadings came from households, 19% from industries, and 11% came from land run-off or erosion (LLDA, 2005).</p><br>
<p>As far as industries and factories are concerned, there are about 1,481 and increase is expected. Of the said figure, about 695 have wastewater treatment facilities. Despite this, the lake is absorbing huge amounts of pollution from these industries in the forms of discharges of industrial cooling water, toxic spills from barges and transport operations, and hazardous chemicals like lead, mercury, aluminum and cyanide. Based from the said figure, 65% are classified as “pollutive” industries.</p><br>
<p>The hastened agricultural modernization throughout the region took its toll on the lake. This paved the way for massive and intensified use of chemical based fertilizers and pesticides whose residues eventually find their way to the lake basin. These chemicals induce rapid algal growth in the area that depleted oxygen levels in the water. Hence, oxygen available to the lake is being used up thereby depleting the available oxygen for the fish, causing massive fish kills.</p><br>
<p>As far as domestic wastes are concerned, around 10% of the 4,100 metric tons of waste generated by residents of Metro Manila are dumped into the lake, causing siltation of the lake. As reported by the now defunct Metropolitan Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS), only 15% of the residents in the area have an effective waste disposal system. Moreover, around 85% of the families living along the shoreline do not have toilets and/or septic tanks.</p><br>
<p>On January 29, 2008, the Mamamayan Para sa Pagpapanatili ng Pagpapaunlad ng Lawa ng Laguna (Mapagpala) accused the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) of the deterioration of Laguna de Bay due to multiplication of fish pens beyond the allowable limit.</p><br>
<h2>Laguna Lakeshore Expressway Dike</h2><br>
<p>The Laguna Lakeshore Expressway Dike is a proposed expressway that will start from the coastal area of Laguna de Bay from Taguig in Metro Manila to Calamba and Los Baños in Laguna.The project aims to provide a high-standard highway that will speed up traffic between the southern part of Metro Manila and Laguna, as well as a dike that would mitigate flooding in the western coastal communities along Laguna Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Protection and conservation of Laguna de Bay</h2><br>
<p>According to the Clean Water Act of 2004, the DENR (through the LLDA) shall implement a wastewater charge system in all management areas including the Laguna Lake region and Regional Industrial Centers through the collection of wastewater charges/fees. The system shall be established on the basis of payment to the government for discharging wastewater into the water bodies. Wastewater charges shall be established taking into consideration the following: a) to provide strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the amount of water pollutants generated; b) to cover the cost of administering water quality management or improvement programs, including the cost of administering the discharge permitting and water pollution charge system; c) reflect damages caused by water pollution on the surrounding environment, including the cost of rehabilitation; d) type of pollutant; e) classification of the receiving water body; and f) other special attributes of the water body.</p><br>
<p>The technical aspect regarding the quality of wastewater is given in DENR Administrative Order 1990-35. The order defines the critical water parameters’ value versus the classification of the body of water (e.g., lake or river). Discharge permits are issued by the LLDA only if the wastewater being discharged complied with the said order.</p><br>
<h2>Integrated Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management</h2><br>
<p>CECAM is a 5-year research cooperation between Japanese and Filipino scientists. Seven monitoring instruments are being used as part of the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) provided by the Japanese government.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural impact</h2><br>
<p>Laguna de Bay has had a significant impact on the cultures of the communities that grew up around its shores, ranging from folk medicine to architecture. For example, the traditional cure for a child constantly experiencing nose bleed in Victoria, Laguna is to have the child submerge his or her head in the lake water at daybreak. When nipa huts were more common, huts made in the lake area were constructed out of bamboo that would first be cured in the waters of Laguna de Bay. Some experts on the evolution of local mythologies suggest that the legend of Mariang Makiling may have started out as that of the Lady (Ba&#39;i) of Laguna de Bay, before the legend was transmuted to Mount Makiling.</p><br>
<p>The Remarkables are a mountain range and skifield in Otago in the South Island of New Zealand. Located on the southeastern shore of Lake Wakatipu, the range lives up to its name by rising sharply to create an impressive backdrop for the waters. The range is clearly visible from the nearby town of Queenstown.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in the range is Double Cone (2319 metres). The adjacent Hector Mountains southeast of the Remarkables culminate in Mount Tūwhakarōria (2307 m).</p><br>
<p>There are a number of small lakes on the mountains including Lake Alta which forms part of the Remarkables Skifield.</p><br>
<p>The mountains were named The Remarkables by Alexander Garvie in 1857-58, allegedly because they are one of only two mountain ranges in the world which run directly north to south. An alternate explanation for the name given by locals is that early Queenstown settlers, upon seeing the mountain range during sunset one evening, named them the Remarkables to describe the sight.</p><br>
<h2>Skifield</h2><br>
<p>During the winter months The Remarkables skifield has skiing and other winter activities. The ski area has three mountain bowls covering 540 acres (2.2 km²). The patrolled area covers 220 ha with seven lifts (4 chairlifts, 3 magic carpets). Terrain is rated as 30% beginners, 40% intermediate and 30% advanced. The whole skifield area is 540 acres (2.2 km²) with seven lifts. Average annual snowfall is 3.67 metres. In 2007 automated snowmaking was installed and a new snow groomer has also been acquired. There&#39;s also a snow tubing park and in 2008 a terrain park was developed. The Remarkables are part of NZSki, which incorporate Coronet Peak and Mt Hutt.</p><br>
<p>In the 2014 winter season, a new lodge base building and a new 6-seater express detachable chairlift have been inaugurated. In the late future, there is plans to extend the terrain and improve the ski field. An independent operator have released his plans to build a gondola lift from the Remarkables Town Center to the ski field&#39;s base.</p><br>
<p>Rugby is an unincorporated community in Morgan and Scott counties in the USA state of Tennessee. Founded in 1880 by English author Thomas Hughes, Rugby was built as an experimental utopian colony. While Hughess experiment largely failed, a small community lingered at Rugby throughout the 20th century. In the 1960s, residents, friends and descendants of Rugby began restoring the original design and layout of the community, preserving surviving structures and reconstructing others. Rugbys Victorian architecture and picturesque setting have since made it a popular tourist attraction. In 1972, Rugby&#39;s historic area was listed under the name Rugby Colony on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district.</p><br>
<p>The Rugby experiment grew out of the social and economic conditions of Victorian England, where the practice of primogeniture and an economic depression had left many of the "second sons" of the English gentry jobless and idle. Hughes envisioned Rugby as a colony where Englands second sons would have a chance to own land and be free of social and moral ills that plagued late-19th-century English cities. The colony would reject late Victorian materialism in favor of the Christian socialist ideals of equality and cooperation espoused in Hughess Tom Brown&#39;s School Days.</p><br>
<p>From the outset, however, the colony was beset with problems, namely a typhoid epidemic in 1881, lawsuits over land titles, and a population unaccustomed to the hard manual labor required to extract crops from the poor soil of the Cumberland Plateau. By late 1887, most of the original colonists had either died or moved away from Rugby. However, a few carried on into the 20th century and the village retained a small, continuous population.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Rugby is located atop the Cumberland Plateau near the junction of Morgan, Scott, and Fentress counties. While it straddles the two former counties, the majority of it lies in Morgan County. On the north side of Rugby, the Clear Fork joins White Oak Creek to form a natural pool known as "The Meeting of the Waters" that has been a popular hiking destination since the colony&#39;s early days. Beyond Meeting-of-the-Waters, the Clear Fork continues northeastward for another 9 mi to where it joins New River to form the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River.</p><br>
<p>State Route 52 passed through the town, until December 2013 when the "Rugby Bypass" opened, connecting it with USA Route 127 in Jamestown to the west and USA Route 27 in the community of Elgin to the east. The area is relatively remote, with the 125,000 acre Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area dominating the area to the north, and sparsely-populated rolling hills stretching for miles to the south. Most of the historic district is located on or near TN-52. A more modern residential area is located in the Beacon Hill section on the north side of the community.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Hughes was born in Uffington, Oxfordshire, England in 1822. In the 1830s, he attended the Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, where he was greatly influenced by the schools progressive headmaster, Thomas Arnold. Both Rugby School and Arnold figured prominently in Hughess 1857 novel, Tom Browns School Days, and the school would eventually be the namesake for Hughess utopian colony in Tennessee. In Tom Browns School Days, Hughes espoused the ideals of Christian socialism, namely the cooperative ownership of community businesses. By the 1860s, Hughes had grown disenchanted with the materialism of late Victorian England. He was disheartened by the fact that the talents of many of Englands younger sons were wasted due to an economic recession and the medieval system of primogeniture, in which the oldest son inherited all of the family&#39;s land.</p><br>
<p>In 1870, Hughes travelled to America to meet his friend, the poet James Russell Lowell, and learned of the Boston-based Board of Aid to Land Ownership, which specialized in helping unemployed urban craftsmen relocate to rural areas. Hughes indicated that such an operation might also be beneficial to young, unemployed English gentry. In 1878, Board of Aid president Franklin Webster Smith and an agent with the new Cincinnati Southern Railway, Cyrus Clarke, were travelling on the railroads new tracks along the Cumberland Plateau when they identified the future site of Rugby, and were impressed with its virgin forests, clear air, and scenic gorges. Clarke secured options on hundreds of thousands of acres of Plateau land. Knoxville attorney Oliver Perry Temple, who became the colonys legal and agricultural advisor, began the complicated process of securing land titles.</p><br>
<p>Smith returned to Boston to recruit families to move to the newly acquired land on the Plateau, but economic conditions in the northeast had improved, and few families were interested in relocating. Smith then notified Hughes of the Board&#39;s new land acquisitions, and Hughes expressed interest in establishing a colony. Hughes formed a partnership with British lawyers Sir Henry Kimber and John Boyle, and bought the Board of Aid.</p><br>
<h3>Rugby Colony, 1880&ndash;1887</h3><br>
<p>Franklin W. Smith, who was primarily responsible for Rugbys early layout, chose the townsite for Rugby for its resort-like qualities, even though it was 7 mi from the nearest railroad stop at Sedgemoor (modern Elgin). The colonys first frame structure, known as the "Asylum" (now the Pioneer Cottage), was erected in early 1880, and the first wave of colonists constructed tennis and croquet courts, and built a walkway to "The Meeting of the Waters." Within a few months, several residences had been completed, along with the three-story Tabard Inn, which was named for the Southwark hostelry in Canterbury Tales.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hughes was on hand for the colonys "opening" on October 5, 1880, and gave a speech that laid out his plans for Rugby. All colonists would be required to invest $5 in the commissary, thus ensuring public ownership. Personal freedoms were guaranteed, although the sale of alcohol was banned. The colony would build an Episcopal church, but the building could be used by any denomination. On opening day, Tennessees Episcopal bishop, the Right Reverend Charles Quintard, chartered Christ Church and licensed colonist Joseph Blacklock as lay reader.</p><br>
<p>American publications such as The New York Times and Harpers Weekly and London publications such as The Spectator, Saturday Review, and Punch, all followed the colonys progress. Rugby published its own newspaper, The Rugbeian, which was edited by Oxford graduate Osmond Dakeyne, and several colonists formed a Library and Reading Room Society, headed by Tübingen graduate Edward Bertz. In summer 1881, a typhoid outbreak killed seven colonists&mdash;including Dakeyne&mdash;and forced the Tabard Inn to close for cleansing, but the colony recovered. By 1884, the colony boasted over 400 residents, 65 frame public buildings and houses, a tennis team, a social club, and a literary and dramatic society. In 1885, Rugby established a university, Arnold School, named for Rugby School headmaster Thomas Arnold.</p><br>
<h3>Struggle and decline</h3><br>
<p>Throughout its early history, Rugby was beset with lawsuits over land titles. While Cyrus Clarke had obtained options on nearly 350,000 acre of land, many of the Plateaus Appalachian natives grew suspicious of Clarke and refused to sell their property. This slowed the colonys early development, and as the lawsuits dragged on, many colonists gave up and moved away. Furthermore, Smith, who had selected the townsite, had ignored the sites poor soil in favor of its potential as a mountain resort. Rugbys main resort hotel, the Tabard, was forced to close due to the typhoid outbreak in 1881, however, and burned down altogether in 1884, halting Rugbys burgeoning tourist economy and damaging the Board of Aids credit.</p><br>
<p>Frustrated by the colonys slow development, the Board of Aids London backers replaced colony director John Boyle with Irish-born Cincinnati city engineer Robert Walton in May 1882. Rugby attempted to establish a tomato canning operation in 1883, but after the cannery was constructed, colonists failed to grow enough tomatoes to keep it operational. Newspapers began to ridicule Rugby, with London&#39;s Daily News accusing Hughes of creating a "pleasure picnic" rather than a functioning colony, and The New York Times claiming that Hughes was planning to abandon the colony altogether.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the deaths of a number of prominent colonists&mdash;including Hughess mother, Margaret, and geologist Charles Wilson&mdash;led to the departure of most of Rugbys original settlers. That year, Hughes made his last annual visit to the colony, and The Rugbeian ceased publication. In 1892, Sir Henry Kimber reorganized the Board of Aid as the Rugby Tennessee Company, which focused on harvesting the region&#39;s natural resources, all but abandoning the anti-materialistic ideals on which the colony was founded. By 1900, the company had sold its Cumberland Plateau holdings.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>Robert Waltons son, William (1887&ndash;1958), maintained the Thomas Hughes Library, the Christ Church Episcopal, and Kingstone Lisle until the mid-20th century. During the same period, Uffington House was maintained by the family of C.C. Brooks. Conservation efforts at Rugby began in the 1940s when logging practices were decimating the surrounding virgin forests. The efforts were publicized by The New York Times and The Washington Post, and gained federal support with the aide of Secretary of State Cordell Hull, but the state of Tennessee rejected the logging companies offering price for the land, and the forest was cut right up to the community&#39;s boundaries.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, preservationists formed Historic Rugby, a non-profit group dedicated to restoring and maintaining the communitys surviving historic structures, which include the Christ Church Episcopal, the Thomas Hughes Library, the Rugby School, Kingstone Lisle, Uffington House, and Newbury House. The group has also reconstructed several buildings based on their original designs, including the Board of Aid office, the Rugby Commissary, and Sir Henry Kimbers Percy Cottage. The Harrow Road Cafe, a restaurant built in the 1980s, was named for a restaurant that existed at Rugby in the 1880s, although its original design is unknown. The Rugby Printing Works, which originally stood at nearby Deer Lodge, was moved to Rugby in the 1970s. Historic Rugby opened up the communitys Beacon Hill area (originally planned to include residences and a park) to new home construction, with the condition that all new homes must be designed in accordance with the communitys Victorian aesthetic.</p><br>
<h2>Notable buildings</h2><br>
<h3>Christ Church Episcopal</h3><br>
<p>The Christ Church Episcopal was established on October 5, 1880, and initially used the original Rugby schoolhouse for services. The current building was built in the Carpenter Gothic style in 1887 by Cornelius Onderdonk, who constructed many of the original buildings in Rugby, and consecrated by Episcopal bishop Charles Quintard in 1888. The churchs alms basin was designed by English carpenter Henry Fry, who had previously done work for various churches in the London area. The churchs reed organ, built in 1849, is one of the oldest in the United States. The Christ Church congregation has met here regularly since 1887.</p><br>
<h3>Thomas Hughes Library</h3><br>
<p>Built in 1882, the Thomas Hughes Library is the most unchanged of all the buildings in Rugby. The librarys 7,000 volumes were collected primarily by Boston bookseller Estes & Lauriat, and donated to Rugbys Library and Reading Room Society with the stipulation they name the new library for Hughes. The library still contains most of its original collection, the oldest volume of which dates to 1687. German-born colonist Edward Bertz, Rugby&#39;s first librarian, published a book about his Rugby experiences, entitled Das Sabinergut, in 1896.</p><br>
<h3>Kingstone Lisle</h3><br>
<p>Kingstone Lisle, a Queen Anne-style cottage, was built in 1884 as a residence for Thomas Hughes, although Hughes stayed at the cottage for just a very short period on one of his annual visits (he usually stayed at the Newbury House). In the late 1880s, Hughes gave the house to Christ Church priest Joseph Blacklock for use as a rectory. Historic Rugby restored the house in the 1960s, and has outfitted it with period furniture.</p><br>
<h3>Comprehensive list of historical structures</h3><br>
<p>Lake Garda  is the largest lake in Italy.</p><br>
<p>It is a popular holiday location located in northern Italy, about halfway between Brescia and Verona, and between Venice and Milan on the edge of the Dolomites. Glaciers formed this alpine region at the end of the last Ice Age. The lake and its shoreline are divided between the provinces of Verona (to the south-east), Brescia (south-west), and Trentino (north). The name Garda, which the lake has been seen referred to in documents dating to the eighth century, comes from the town of the same name. It is the evolution of the Germanic word warda, meaning "place of guard" or "place of observation."</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The northern part of the lake is narrower, surrounded by mountains, the majority of which belong to the Gruppo del Baldo. The shape is typical of a moraine valley, probably having been formed under the action of a Paleolithic glacier. Although traces of the glacier&#39;s actions are evident today, in more recent years it has been hypothesised that the glacier occupied a previously existing depression, created by stream erosion 5 to 6 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The lake has numerous small islands and five main ones, the largest being Isola del Garda where in 1220 St. Francis of Assisi founded a monastery, in its place now stands a nineteenth-century building in the Venetian Gothic style. Nearby to the south is Isola San Biagio, also known as the Isola dei Conigli ("Island of the Rabbits"). Both are offshore of San Felice del Benaco, on the lakes western side. The three other main islands are Isola dellOlivo, Isola di Sogno, and Isola di Trimelone, all farther north near the eastern side. The main tributary is the Sarca River, others include the Ponale River (fed by Lago di Ledro), the Varone/Magnone River (via the Cascate del Varone) and various streams from both mountain sides, while the only outlet is the Mincio River (79 m, at Peschiera). The subdivision is created by the presence of a fault submerged between Sirmione and Punta San Vigilio which is almost a natural barrier that hampers the homogenization between the water of the two zones.</p><br>
<p>If the water level of the Adige river is too high, excess water is diverted to the lake through the Mori-Torbole tunnel.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The particularly mild climate favours the growth of some Mediterranean plants, including the olive tree. Citrus (lemon) trees can also be found, which are extremely rare at this latitude (46° North).</p><br>
<p>This greatly favoured the development of tourism since the end of the second world war. In ancient times, poets like Catullus wrote about "Lacus Benacus" with its mild climate vivified by the winds. The lake is oriented from north to south towards the Po Valley, so many winds typical of the lake are the result of a difference between lower and higher altitude temperatures. Due to this, winds are generated that descend from the mountains to the plains in the morning and go back to the mountains in the afternoon. The bottleneck formed by the lake basin affects the timing of the winds, many of which happen on a regular daily basis. The winds are all named, most in regional Italian dialect so a single wind may have different names.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>Salmo carpio, also known as the carpione (carpione del Garda or Lake Garda carpione) is a rare salmonid fish endemic to Lake Garda. It has been introduced to a number of other lakes in Italy and elsewhere but unsuccessfully in all cases. The population in Lake Garda has been strongly declining, and is considered critically endangered (IUCN 3.1). The main threats are due to overfishing, pollution and possibly competition from introduced species such as Coregonus and other Salmonidae.</p><br>
<p>Adult lake trout outside the mating season are silvery with very few black spots on the body and almost none on the head. During the mating season males develop some a dark mottled body coloration. Garda lake trout reach a length of up to 50 centimeters. They live primarily in depths of 100 to 200 m. They feed on zooplankton and bottom-dwelling crustaceans in summer. Males and females reach sexual maturity at two or three years. The mating takes place every one to two years. The spawning takes place in 50 to 300 m depth in the vicinity of underwater springs. The maximum age is five years.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Battle of Lake Benacus, in which Roman forces defeated the Alamanni on the shores of Lake Garda, in the year 268.</p><br>
<p>Battle of Rivoli, in 1797 during the French campaign of Napoleon I in Italy against Austria.</p><br>
<p>Battle of Solferino in 1859, during the Italian Risorgimento. The terrible aftermath of this battle led to the Geneva Convention and the formation of the Red Cross.</p><br>
<p>The lake was the site of naval battles in 1866 between Italy and Austria.</p><br>
<p>As persuaded by the Nazis, Benito Mussolini established the capital of his Italian Social Republic in late 1943 in a villa in the town of Salò on its shores. It served as a nexus for military operations and communications for German troops who occupied northern Italy in late 1943 during World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and villages on the lake</h2><br>
<p>The ancient fortified town of Sirmione, located on the south of the lake, is one particularly popular destination, home to the Virgilio & Catullo Spa Complexes, as well as numerous restaurants, bars, hotels, fashion stores and a market. The picturesque Scaliger castle dates from the 13th century. The Roman poet Catullus had a villa here, and visitors can see a ruined Roman spa named the Grotte di Catullo (Grottoes of Catullus) although there is no evidence linking him to this particular building. The sulfur springs at the tip of the peninsula have a reputation for healing catarrhal conditions, particularly those involving the ear. Another popular town is the town of Garda. Garda is approximately 30 km from the more popular town of Verona. Garda&#39;s economy is based off tourism. Nearby, there is Gardaland, one of the most famous theme parks in Italy. At the northern end of the lake, the towns of Riva and Torbole are famous for winds that attract people who sail, windsurf & kiteboard.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Ferry</h3><br>
<p>Infrequent ferry services connect major towns on the eastern and western shores of Lake Garda. The services run in a zig-zag manner from Desenzano del Garda to Riva del Garda, via Peschiera del Garda, Salò, Garda and Malcesine. One express ferry, on which bicycles are not allowed, operates per day: journey time from Riva del Garda to Peschiera takes 2 hours.</p><br>
<h3>Rail</h3><br>
<p>Railway stations with direct bus links include Rovereto (to Riva del Garda), Verona (to Garda), Peschiera del Garda (to Garda) and Desenzano del Garda (to Salò).</p><br>
<h3>Buses</h3><br>
<p>Buses are faster alternatives to ferry services. On Lake Garda&#39;s eastern coast (provinces of Verona and Trentino), ATV (Verona Transport Company) provides at least five daily bus routes between Verona and Garda, with one route extending beyond Garda to Riva del Garda. Trentino Transporti provides daily bus routes between Riva del Garda and Rovereto or Trento.</p><br>
<p>162: Verona – Garda (via Bussolegno)</p><br>
<p>163: Verona – Garda (via Lasize)</p><br>
<p>164: Verona – Verona-Villafranca Airport (summer only) – Peschiera del Garda – Gardaland – Garda</p><br>
<p>165: Verona – Garda (via Calmasino)</p><br>
<p>183: Peschiera – Garda – Gardaland – Malcesine (May to October)</p><br>
<p>184: Garda – Malcesine – Riva del Garda</p><br>
<p>205: Verona – Garda EXPRESS (summer only)</p><br>
<p>X05: Verona – Garda EXPRESS (limited service)</p><br>
<p>On Lake Garda&#39;s western coast (Brescia province), SAIA (Brescia Mobilità) provides regular bus services between Desenzano and Salò.</p><br>
<p>S202: Brescia – Salò – Campione – Limone sul Garda – Riva del Garda</p><br>
<p>LN006: Salò – Desenzano del Garda (via Cunettone)</p><br>
<p>LN007: Salò – Desenzano del Garda (via Raffa)</p><br>
<p>LN027: Salò – Desenzano del Garda (via Moniga)</p><br>
<h2>Panoramas</h2><br>
<p>San Juan Hill is a series of hills to the east of Santiago, Cuba, running north to south. The area is known as the San Juan Heights or in Spanish &#39;Alturas de San Juan&#39; before Spanish–American War of 1898, and are now part of Lomas de San Juan.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>These were the heights where Spanish soldiers entrenched themselves in the most famous battle of the Spanish–American War, the Battle of San Juan Hill. The Americans named the lesser heights, "Kettle Hill", and the higher southern hill, "San Juan Hill", after the battle of July 2, 1898. The two high points or hills are connected by a draw or saddle on a north-south axis.</p><br>
<p>The fight for the San Juan Heights or Hills became known as the Battle of San Juan Hill due to a reporter&#39;s telegraphy error in which the plural "s" was dropped. American Army reports also referred to the heights as "hills".</p><br>
<p>Lake Como  is a lake of glacial origin in Lombardy, Italy. It has an area of 146 square kilometres , making it the third-largest lake in Italy, after Lake Garda and Lake Maggiore. At over 400 metres  deep, it is one of the deepest lakes in Europe, and the bottom of the lake is more than 200 metres  below sea level.</p><br>
<p>Lake Como has been a popular retreat for aristocrats and wealthy people since Roman times, and a very popular tourist attraction with many artistic and cultural gems. It has many villas and palaces (such as Villa Olmo, Villa Serbelloni, and Villa Carlotta). Many famous people have had and have homes on the shores of Lake Como.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, The Huffington Post called it the most beautiful lake in the world for its microclimate and environment with prestigious villas and villages.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name in Latin is Larius, Italianised as Lario, but this name is rarely used; it is usually called Lago di Como (literally "lake of Como"). In guidebooks the lake may be variously referred to as Lake Como, Lake of Como, or Como Lake. Its name comes from the city of Como, known to the Romans as Comum.</p><br>
<p>While the town of Como is referred to as Como, the lake is never referred to solely by this name. This is not true of another lake in Italy, Lake Garda, where Garda may refer to either the town fronting the lake, or the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake is shaped much like an inverted letter "Y". The northern branch begins at the town of Colico, while the towns of Como and Lecco sit at the ends of the southwestern and southeastern branches respectively. The small towns of Bellagio, Menaggio and Lierna are situated at the intersection of the three branches of the lake: a triangular boat service operates between them.</p><br>
<p>Lake Como is fed primarily by the Adda River, which enters the lake near Colico and flows out at Lecco. This geological conformation makes the southwestern branch a dead end, and so Como, unlike Lecco, is often flooded.</p><br>
<p>The mountainous pre-alpine territory between the two southern arms of the lake (between Como, Bellagio, and Lecco) is known as the Larian Triangle, or Triangolo lariano. The source of the river Lambro is here. At the centre of the triangle, the town of Canzo is the seat of the Comunità montana del Triangolo lariano, an association of the 31 municipalities that represent the 71,000 inhabitants of the area.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Lake Como weather is humid subtropical (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification). In the winter, the lake helps to maintain a higher temperature in the surrounding region. Average daily temperatures range from about 3.7 &deg;C in January to 23.4 &deg;C in July, according to historical weather data from Como. Water temperatures can reach an average of 24 &deg;C during the month of July. Snowfall is erratic and primarily affects the higher elevations. Rainfall is heaviest in May and lowest during the winter months.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>As a tourist destination, Lake Como is popular for its landscapes, wildlife, and spas. It is a venue for sailing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing. In 1818 Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote to Thomas Love Peacock: "This lake exceeds anything I ever beheld in beauty, with the exception of the arbutus islands of Killarney. It is long and narrow, and has the appearance of a mighty river winding among the mountains and the forests".</p><br>
<p>In the area surrounding Lake Como there are several farms which produce goods such as honey, olive oil, cheese, milk, eggs and salamis. Visitors can find lists of these farms and typically visit the farm itself in person to make their purchases.</p><br>
<h3>Lakeside villas</h3><br>
<p>The lake is well known for the attractive villas that have been built there since Roman times, when Pliny the Younger built the Comedia and the Tragedia resorts. Many villas on the lake shores have admirable gardens that benefit from the mild climate induced by the stabilising presence of 22.5 km³ of lake water and are fit to host tropical plants.</p><br>
<p>Villa Carlotta was built for the Milanese Marquis Giorgio Clerici in 1690 and occupies a site of over 7 ha (17 acres) at Tremezzo, facing the Bellagio peninsula. An Italian garden (with steps, fountains, and sculptures) was laid out at the same time. The villa was later sold to powerful banker and Napoleonic politician Giovanni Battista Sommariva. Stendhal was his guest in 1818, and his visit is recalled at the start of La Chartreuse de Parme. In 1843 it was purchased by Princess Marianne of Nassau as a wedding present for her daughter Carlotta, after whom the villa is now named. The latter, together with her husband Georg II of Saxen-Meiningen, laid out the woodland landscape park in Romantic style. The villa today includes a museum of agricultural implements as well as important works of sculpture by Sommariva’s friend Antonio Canova and by Luigi Acquisti.</p><br>
<p>Villa d&#39;Este, in Cernobbio, was built in 1568 by Cardinal Tolomeo Gallio, a native of the town. In 1816–1817 the villa was home to Caroline of Brunswick, estranged wife of the Prince of Wales and shortly to become Queen Consort of King George IV of the United Kingdom. The landscaped gardens in the English style are a product of this period. Later in the century it was turned into a luxury hotel. Today the Villa d’Este is known for attracting celebrity guests.</p><br>
<p>Villa del Balbianello, famous for its elaborate terraced gardens, lies on a promontory of the western shore of the lake near Isola Comacina. Built in 1787 on the site of a Franciscan monastery, it was the final home of the explorer Guido Monzino and today houses a museum devoted to his work.</p><br>
<p>Villa Melzi dEril in Bellagio was built in neo-classical style by architect Giocondo Albertolli in 1808–10 as the summer residence of Duke Francesco Melzi dEril, who was vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic. The park includes an orangery, a private chapel, fine statues, and a Japanese garden, and is planted, as often on lake Como, with huge rhododendrons. 19th-century guests at the Villa included Stendhal and Franz Liszt.</p><br>
<p>Villa Serbelloni, also in Bellagio, hosts the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center, a 50-acre (200,000 m) international conference center set up and managed by the Rockefeller Foundation since 1959, which also operates a "scholar-in-residence" program for scholars from around the world. This is believed to have been the site of Pliny the Younger’s villa "Tragedia". Its well-known park was created at the end of the 18th century by Alessandro Serbelloni.</p><br>
<p>Many famous people have or have had homes on the shores of Lake Como, such as Matthew Bellamy, John Kerry, Madonna, George Clooney, Gianni Versace, Ronaldinho, Sylvester Stallone, Julian Lennon, Richard Branson, Ben Spies, and Pierina Legnani.</p><br>
<h3>Ferries</h3><br>
<p>The Lake Como ferry service is a highly developed public transport system linking the many small towns around the Lake. A motorized service began in 1826 when a steamship with sails, the “Lario”, was launched by the newly established Società privilegiata per l&#39;impresa dei battelli a vapore nel Regno Lombardo Veneto. Since 1952 the system has been run under the auspices of a government organization called first the Gestione Commissariale Governativa and subsequently the Gestione Governativa Navigazione Laghi, which is also responsible for services on Lake Maggiore and Lake Garda.</p><br>
<p>Today there are three main services:</p><br>
<p>Motorship services along the western branch and northern end of the Lake (between Colico or Piona and Como town), with additional shuttles to the mid-lake area.</p><br>
<p>Fast services that follow broadly the same route, but use faster hydrofoils, stop less frequently, and cost extra.</p><br>
<p>Ferries that run only between the popular mid-lake villages of Menaggio, Bellagio, and Varenna, plus Cadenabbia. Some of these boats carry vehicles as well as passengers.</p><br>
<h3>Sacro Monte di Ossuccio</h3><br>
<p>The Sacro Monte di Ossuccio ("Holy Mount of Ossuccio") is a sanctuary located on a hillside slope between olive groves and woods along the western edge of Lake Como facing Isola Comacina. Fifteen Baroque inspired chapels, built between 1635 and 1710, and dedicated to the Mysteries of the Rosary are dotted along the way that leads to the Monastery. This building is the last in the chain and is dedicated to the Coronation of the Virgin.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, including that of Ossuccio, were added by UNESCO to the World Heritage List.</p><br>
<h2>Villages, resorts, and other remarkable localities near the lake</h2><br>
<p>The Alaska Range is a relatively narrow, 650-km-long  mountain range in the southcentral region of the USA state of Alaska, from Lake Clark at its southwest end to the White River in Canada&#39;s Yukon Territory in the southeast. The highest mountain in North America, Denali, is in the Alaska Range. It is part of the American Cordillera.</p><br>
<p>The range is the highest in the world outside Asia and the Andes.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The range forms a generally east-west arc with its northernmost part in the center, and from there trending southwest towards the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians, and trending southeast into the Pacific Coast Ranges. The mountains act as a high barrier to the flow of moist air from the Gulf of Alaska northwards, and thus has some of the harshest weather in the world. The heavy snowfall also contributes to a number of large glaciers, including the Canwell, Castner, Black Rapids, Susitna, Yanert, Muldrow, Eldridge, Ruth, Tokositna, and Kahiltna Glaciers. Four major rivers cross the Range, including the Delta River, and Nenana River in the center of the range and the Nabesna and Chisana Rivers to the east.</p><br>
<p>The range is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, and the Denali Fault that runs along the southern edge of the range is responsible for a number of earthquakes. Mount Spurr is a stratovolcano located in the northeastern end of the Aleutian Volcanic Arc of Alaska, USA which has two vents, the summit and nearby Crater Peak.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the range are protected within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Denali National Park and Preserve, and Lake Clark National Park and Preserve. The George Parks Highway from Anchorage to Fairbanks, the Richardson Highway from Valdez to Fairbanks, and the Tok Cut-Off from Gulkana Junction to Tok, Alaska pass through low parts of the range. The Alaska Pipeline parallels the Richardson Highway.</p><br>
<h3>Naming history</h3><br>
<p>The name "Alaskan Range" appears to have been first applied to these mountains in 1869 by naturalist W. H. Dall. The name eventually became "Alaska Range" through local use. In 1849 Constantin Grewingk applied the name "Tschigmit" to this mountain range. A map made by the General Land Office in 1869 calls the southwestern part of the Alaska Range the "Chigmit Mountains" and the northeastern part the "Beaver Mountains". However the Chigmit Mountains are now considered part of the Aleutian Range.</p><br>
<h2>Major peaks</h2><br>
<p>Denali (6,190.5 m/20,310 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Foraker (5,304 m/17,400 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Hunter (4,442 m/14,573 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Hayes (4,216 m/13,832 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Silverthrone (4,029 m/13,218 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Moffit (3,970 m/13,020 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Deborah (3,761 m/12,339 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Huntington (3,730 m/12,240 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Brooks (3,624 m/11,890 ft)</p><br>
<p>Mount Russell (3,557 m/11,670 ft)</p><br>
<h2>Subranges (from west to east)</h2><br>
<p>Neacola Mountains</p><br>
<p>Revelation Mountains</p><br>
<p>Teocalli Mountains</p><br>
<p>Kichatna Mountains</p><br>
<p>Central Alaska Range/Denali Massif</p><br>
<p>Eastern Alaska Range/Hayes Range</p><br>
<p>Delta Mountains</p><br>
<p>Mentasta Mountains</p><br>
<p>Nutzotin Mountains</p><br>
<h2>Documented wilderness traverses of Alaska Range</h2><br>
<p>Mentasta Lake to Kitchatna Mountains (1981): Scott Woolums, George Beilstein, Steve Eck, and Larry Coxen by skis: first traverse. 375 mi in 45 days.</p><br>
<p>Canada to Lake Clark (1996): Roman Dial, Carl Tobin, and Paul Adkins by mountain bike and packraft: first full length traverse. 775 mi in 42 days.</p><br>
<p>Tok to Lake Clark (1996): Kevin Armstrong, Doug Woody, and Jeff Ottmers by snowshoe, foot, and packraft: first foot traverse. 620 mi in 90 days.</p><br>
<p>Lake Clark to Mentasta Lake (2016): Gavin McClurg by paraglider and foot: first vol-biv (fly/camp) traverse. 466 mi in 37 days.</p><br>
<p>The Aleutian Range is a major mountain range located in southwest Alaska, and it extends from Chakachamna Lake  to Unimak Island, which is at the tip of the Alaska Peninsula. It includes all of the mountains of the peninsula, and what makes it so special is its large number of active volcanoes, which are also part of the larger Aleutian Arc. The mainland part of the range is about 600 miles  long; the Aleutian Islands are  a partially submerged western extension of the range that stretches for another 1,600 km . However the official designation "Aleutian Range" includes only the mainland peaks and the peaks on Unimak Island. The range is almost entirely roadless wilderness, and Katmai National Park and Preserve, a large national park within the range, must be reached by boat or plane.</p><br>
<p>The core Aleutian Range can be divided into three mountain groups. Listed from southwest to northeast, they are:</p><br>
<p>Mountains of the Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island</p><br>
<p>Chigmit Mountains</p><br>
<p>Neacola Mountains</p><br>
<p>See Aleutian Islands for the continuation of the range to the west of Unimak Island. Just to the north of the Aleutian Range are the Tordrillo Mountains, the southeasternmost extent of the Alaska Range.</p><br>
<p>Selected mountains:</p><br>
<p>Mount Redoubt (3,108 m), Chigmit Mountains</p><br>
<p>Iliamna Volcano (3,054 m), Chigmit Mountains</p><br>
<p>Mount Neacola, (2,873 m), Neacola Mountains</p><br>
<p>Mount Shishaldin (2,857 m), Unimak Island</p><br>
<p>Mount Pavlof (2,715 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Mount Veniaminof (2,508 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Isanotski Peaks (2,446 m), Unimak Island</p><br>
<p>Mount Denison (2,318 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Mount Griggs, (2,317+ m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Mount Douglas (2,153 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Mount Chiginagak (2,134 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Double Peak (2,078 m), Chigmit Mountains</p><br>
<p>Mount Katmai (2,047 m), Alaska Peninsula</p><br>
<p>Pogromni Volcano (2,002 m), Unimak Island</p><br>
<p>Mount Okmok (1,073 m), Fox Islands</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Two volcanoes erupted during the summer of 2008 on the eastern Aleutian Islands. On July 12, 2008, Mount Okmok erupted, and it continued to erupt for a month. A giant, rapidly moving ash and gas cloud shot up to a height of 15,240 m as a result of this eruption.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kasatochi was home to the other eruption, which occurred on August 7 and 8. This eruption also sent up a gas cloud about 15,000 high. Together, these two power volcanic eruptions deposited emissions of trace gases an aerosols into the atmosphere. These emissions formed a sulfate aerosol layer that totaled a transfer of 1.6 Tg of SO2 into the stratosphere and disturbed flights over this area for a short period following the eruptions.</p><br>
<h2>Earthquakes</h2><br>
<p>The 7.9 Mw Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred in June 2014 at an intermediate depth of 107 km. The quake was caused by oblique normal faulting along the Aleutian Trench, a convergent boundary where the Pacific plate is subducting underneath the North American plate at around 59 mm/year.</p><br>
<p>The Chugach Mountains of southern Alaska are the northernmost of the several mountain ranges that make up the Pacific Coast Ranges of the western edge of North America. The range is about 250 mi long and 60 mi wide, and extends from the Knik and Turnagain Arms of the Cook Inlet on the west to Bering Glacier, Tana Glacier, and the Tana River on the east. It is bounded on the north by the Matanuska, Copper, and Chitina rivers. The highest point of the Chugach Mountains is Mount Marcus Baker, at 13,094 ft, but with an average elevation of 4,006 ft, most of its summits are not especially high. Even so its position along the Gulf of Alaska ensures more snowfall in the Chugach than anywhere else in the world, an annual average of over 1500 cm .</p><br>
<p>The mountains are protected in the Chugach State Park and the Chugach National Forest. Near to Anchorage, they are a popular destination for outdoor activities. Weather permitting, the World Extreme Skiing Championship is held annually in the Chugach Mountains near Valdez.</p><br>
<p>The Richardson Highway, Seward Highway, Portage Glacier Highway, and the Glenn Highway run through the Chugach Mountains. The Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel of the Portage Glacier Highway provides railroad and automobile access underneath Maynard Mountain between Portage Lake and the city of Whittier on Prince William Sound.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "Chugach" comes from Chugach Sugpiaq "Cuungaaciiq" (in the modern spelling) meaning "Cook Inlet&quot Russians applied this name to the indigenous Sugpiaq or Alutiiq people of the southern Kenai Peninsula and Prince William Sound, usually describing place names as Chugachik and the people as Chugatz and Tshougatskoy. In 1898 United States Army Captain William R. Abercrombie spelled the name "Chugatch" and applied it to the mountains. It is possible that the Koniagmiut (Sugpiat or Alutiit of the Kodiak Archipelago and the Alaska Peninsula) may also have called these northern Sugpiat "Cuungaaciirmiut" in ancient times but it is also possible that this was a neologism during Russian times.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains</h2><br>
<p>The twelve highest peaks in the Chugach Mountains are listed below:</p><br>
<p>Other important peaks in the Chugach Mountains include:</p><br>
<p>Mount Michelson 8,156 ft</p><br>
<p>Bashful Peak 8,005 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Billy Mitchell 6,919 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Palmer 6,585 ft</p><br>
<p>Eagle Peak 6,424 ft</p><br>
<p>Polar Bear Peak 5,430 ft</p><br>
<p>North Suicide Peak 5,065 ft</p><br>
<p>Ptarmigan Peak 4,409 ft</p><br>
<p>Byron Peak 4,590 ft</p><br>
<p>Flattop Mountain 2,979 ft</p><br>
<p>Bold Peak 7,522 ft</p><br>
<p>The Rammelsberg is a mountain, 635 m high, on the northern edge of the Harz range, south of the historic town of Goslar in the North German state of Lower Saxony. The mountain is the location of an important silver, copper, and lead mine, the only mine which had been working continuously for over 1,000 years when it finally closed in 1988. Since 1992, the visitor mine of Rammelsberg has become a UNESCO World heritage site.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>According to legend, the mountain was named after a knight called "Ramm", who was a henchman of Emperor Otto the Great. In 968, whilst out hunting, the knight tied his horse to a tree, in order to pursue some deer through almost impassable terrain. His charger impatiently pawed the ground with its hooves whilst waiting for his master to return and so exposed a vein of silver ore. According to another explanations, the name may be derived from the widespread ramsons (Ramsen) found on the slopes. It is most probably however, that "ram" is a very old word-explanation for "ore with copper". In Italian today "rame" means "copper".</p><br>
<h2>Ore formation</h2><br>
<p>Unlike the mineral deposits of the Upper Harz, the ore deposits at the Rammelsberg were caused by the escape of hot, metal-bearing, thermal springs on the sea floor in the Devonian period. This formation is referred to as a sedimentary exhalative deposit. At the bottom of the Devonian sea, two large lenses of ore were formed that were later caught up in the folding of rocks during the Carboniferous period and so lie overturned at an angle in the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Ore mining started in the "Old Bed" or "Old Orebody" (Altes Lager), exposed on the surface by erosion, during the Bronze Age. The "New Bed" (Neues Lager) was only discovered in the 19th century as a result of specific exploration. The mines were exhausted only in the 1980s, and were shut down in 1988. The ore contained an average of 14% of zinc, 6% lead, 2% copper, 1 g/t gold and 140 g/t silver.</p><br>
<h2>Mining history</h2><br>
<p>The mining history of the Rammelsberg occurred as a continuous process in different phases. Initially the main product was copper ore, then, (much) later lead, and with lead, silver.</p><br>
<p>The analysis of written sources and archaeological finds of unsmelted pieces of ore and slag found during archaeological excavations between 1981 and 1985 at Düna (near Osterode) in the South Harz indicates that the earliest mining activity at the Rammelsberg occurred in the late 7th century AD (968AD). Anglo-Saxon burial objects made of Harz ore were also excavated in England.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>Mining on the Rammelsberg was first mentioned in the records around 968 by the Saxon chronicler, Widukind of Corvey. According to his Res gestae saxonicae, Emperor Otto the Great had silver ore deposits (venas argenti) opened and extracted. The mining settlement of Goslar was not mentioned until 979. In 1005, attracted by the presence of silver, King Henry II of Germany had the Imperial Palace of Goslar (Kaiserpfalz Goslar) built at the foot of Mt. Rammelsberg, which, extended by his Salian successors Conrad II and Henry III, gradually replaced the former Royal palace of Werla.</p><br>
<p>The profitable mines remained a Reichsgut directly belonging to the Holy Roman Emperor. When in 1175 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa called for support on his campaign against the Italian cities of the Lombard League, the Welf duke Henry the Lion demanded his enfeoffment with the Goslar mines in return, which Frederick denied. Duke Henry laid siege to the town and had the mining installations demolished. Restored after his deposition in 1180, the Rammelberg mines were again contested in 1198/99 during the Welf-Hohenstaufen throne quarrel between his son Otto IV and Frederick&#39;s son Philip of Swabia.</p><br>
<p>After Imperial influence waned, the mines were held in pledge by the council of the Imperial city of Goslar, who officially purchased the entitlement to the rights and royalties from mining (Bergregal) in 1359. A mining accident is documented in 1376, when more than 100 miners were buried and killed. The main ores mined at Rammelsberg were lead-zinc ore, copper ore, sulphur ore, mixed ore (Melierterz), brown spar (Braunerz), barite ore (Grauerz), banding ore (Banderz) and kniest along with the important minerals of galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, baryte and vitriols. The chief metals extracted from these ores included silver, lead, copper and zinc, on which the wealth of Goslar was based.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>The Goslar mines for centuries had been a thorn in the side of the Dukes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel ruling over the adjacent Harz estates. In 1552 - after decades of legal proceedings, feuds and skirmishing - Duke Henry V took the occasion of the citys weakened position upon the Schmalkaldic War and seized ownership of the mines from the citizens. Mining operations were further promoted by Henrys son and successor Duke Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1568. During the Thirty Years&#39; War the Goslar citizens once again tried to regain the Rammelsberg mines distinguishing themselves as loyal supporters of the Imperial forces against the Protestant commander Christian the Younger of Brunswick; however, to no avail as his nephew Duke Augustus the Younger reconciled with Emperor Ferdinand in 1642. Under the Welf dukes, gold was also won from the 18th century onwards.</p><br>
<p>With Goslar the Rammelsberg mines passed to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814 and to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. Under the 1936/37 Rammelsbergprojekt, the mine was greatly expanded at the behest of the Nazi authorities as part of the Four-year plan. The Nazis saw the Rammelsberg with its metal ores as vital to their war efforts and the difficulty of mineral dressing the ore had been technically solved (using froth flotation). This led to the construction of the present-day surface installations under with their hillside processing plant and Rammelsberg shaft. The architects were Fritz Schupp and Martin Kremmer, who designed other important industrial buildings (including the Zeche Zollverein in the Ruhr area, now also a UNESCO World Heritage Site).</p><br>
<h3>Prospecting in 2009</h3><br>
<p>In February 2009, the company, Scandinavian Highlands Holding A/S, published the results of geophysical investigations by its subsidiary, Harz Minerals GmbH, according to which hitherto unknown mineral deposits of the size of those at the Rammelsberg may be present, two kilometres west of the Rammelsberg ore deposits. In autumn 2009 several exploratory bores were sunk in the area of the Hessenkopf and Gosetal to a depth of 500–600 metres. At the end of January 2010, after a news blackout of several months, the company announced that they would soon be drilling to a depth of 800 metres, where they suspected there would be rich mineral deposits.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>After more than 1000 years during which almost 30 million tonnes of ore were extracted, the mine was finally closed by the Preussag company on 30 June 1988 as the mineral deposits had been largely exhausted. A citizens&#39; association argued forcefully against plans to demolish the surface installations and fill in the historic underground mine workings. Consequently, the disused mine was developed into a museum to preserve its heritage and display the history of the mine and its industrial equipment.</p><br>
<p>In 1992 the museum became a UNESCO world heritage project together with Goslar&#39;s Old Town. In 2010 this world heritage site was expanded to include the Upper Harz Water Regale, Walkenried Abbey and the historic Samson Pit. The Rammelsberg Museum and Visitor Mine is an anchor point on the European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH).</p><br>
<p>The historic mine has a number of special attractions including:</p><br>
<p>the Roeder Gallery (with a flatrod system and several water wheels that support the drainage of the pit and the hoisting of ore; there is a replica in the Deutsches Museum in Munich)</p><br>
<p>the Feuergezäher Vault (the oldest "nogged" (ausgemauert) underground mining space in Central Europe)</p><br>
<p>the Rathstiefste Gallery (medieval drainage adit; decorated with coloured vitriol encrustations)</p><br>
<p>the headframe (18th century)</p><br>
<p>the Master Malter&#39;s Tower (Maltermeisterturm) (oldest above-ground mining building in Germany)</p><br>
<p>old pithead dumps (the oldest being from the 11th and 12th centuries).</p><br>
<h2>Mine installations</h2><br>
<h3>Master Malter's Tower</h3><br>
<p>The Master Malter&#39;s Tower (Maltermeisterturm) is the oldest surviving above-ground mine building on the Rammelsberg and, probably, in Germany as well. It was built around 1500 on a slagheap on the side of the Rammelsberg. Initially the tower was used to oversee the pits; from 1578 it was used as a bell tower (Anläuteturm).</p><br>
<p>Since the mid-18th century the master malter (Maltermeister) lived in the tower. He managed the wood needed for the mine, which was measured in malters, hence the name.</p><br>
<h3>Herzberg Pond</h3><br>
<p>In order to have enough water to drive water wheels during times of drought the Herzberg Pond was created in 1561. Since 1926, this has been used as a woodland swimming pool. Until the closure of the mine, water was used for cooling and the warm water was pumped back into the pond where it heated the swimming basin of the woodland pool.</p><br>
<h3>Low-grade ore dressing on the Bollrich</h3><br>
<p>Due to the German Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle") after the Second World War and sharply rising lead and zinc prices in 1950, investigations were undertaken into the deposits of banding ore (Banderz). After successful trials into the processing of this low-grade ore (recoverable metal content of about 25%), the dressing of banding ore was begun in 1953 on the Bollrich above the village of Oker. Once again the mine architect, Fritz Schupp, was responsible for planning the facilities.</p><br>
<p>The site was linked to the Rammelsberg mine via the pit railway through the Gelenbeek Gallery. The removal of concentrates to the lead smelter at Oker and the Harlingerode zinc works was facilitated by a standard gauge railway line.</p><br>
<h2>Commemorative coin</h2><br>
<p>In 2008 Goslar&#39;s "Old Town" and the Rammelsberg Mine formed the motif for the annually issued 100 Euro gold coins from the series of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.</p><br>
<h2>Harzer Wandernadel</h2><br>
<p>The Rammelsberg Museum is No. 91 in the system of checkpoints forming the Harzer Wandernadel hiking network.</p><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain is a lava dome complex west of the town of Mammoth Lakes, California, in the Inyo National Forest of Madera and Mono Counties. It is home to a large ski area on the Mono County side.</p><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain was formed in a series of eruptions that ended 57,000 years ago. However, Mammoth still produces hazardous volcanic gases that kill trees and caused ski patroller fatalities in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain is a lava dome complex in Mono County, California. It lies in the southwestern corner of the Long Valley Caldera and consists of about 12 rhyodacite and dacite overlapping domes. These domes formed in a long series of eruptions from 110,000 to 57,000 years ago, building a volcano that reaches 11,059 ft in elevation. During this time, massive dacite eruptions occurred roughly every 5000 years. The volcano is still active with minor eruptions, the largest of which was a minor phreatic (steam) eruption 700 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain also lies on the south end of the Mono-Inyo chain of volcanic craters. The magma source for Mammoth Mountain is distinct from those of both the Long Valley Caldera and the Inyo Craters.</p><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain is composed primarily of dacite and rhyolite, part of which has been altered by hydrothermal activity from fumaroles (steam vents).</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic gas discharge</h2><br>
<p>Mammoth is outgassing large amounts of carbon dioxide out of its south flank, near Horseshoe Lake, causing mazuku in that area. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the ground ranges from 20 to 90 percent CO2. Measurements of the total discharge of carbon dioxide gas at the Horseshoe Lake tree-kill area range from 50 to 150 ST per day. This high concentration causes trees to die in six regions that total about 170 acre in size (see photo, above).</p><br>
<p>The tree-kills originally were attributed to a severe drought that affected California in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Another idea was that the kills were the result of a pathogen or other biological infestation. However, neither idea explained why all trees in the affected areas were killed regardless of age or health. Then, in March 1990, a USA Forest Service Ranger became ill with suffocation symptoms after being in a snow-covered cabin near Horseshoe Lake.</p><br>
<p>Measurements around the lake found that restrooms and tents had a greater than 1% CO2 concentration (toxic) and a deadly 25% concentration of CO2 in a small cabin. CO2 concentrations of less than 1% are typical and healthy in most soils; however, soil concentrations of CO2 in the tree-kill areas ranged from 20% to 90%. This overabundance of CO2 was found to be the cause of the tree-kills because tree roots need to absorb O2 directly and the high CO2 level reduced available O2. Researchers also determined that Mammoth releases about 1,300 ST of CO2 every day. As of 2003, the concentration of carbon dioxide in soil gas at Mammoth Mountain is being monitored on a continuous, year-round basis at four sites—three at Horseshoe Lake and one near the base of Chair 19 at the ski area.</p><br>
<p>The most likely sources of the CO2 are degassing of intruded magma and gas release from limestone-rich metasedimentary rocks that are heated by magmatic intrusions. The remarkable uniformity in chemical and isotopic composition of the CO2 and accompanying gases at different locations around Mammoth Mountain indicates that there may actually be a large reservoir of gas deep below the mountain from which gas escapes along faults to the surface. Measurements of helium emissions support the theory that the gases emitted in the tree kill area have the same source as those discharged from Mammoth Mountain Fumarole. There is evidence that the rate of CO2 discharge has been declining, with emissions peaking in 1991.</p><br>
<p>In April 2006, three members of the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area ski patrol died while on duty. All three died from suffocation by carbon dioxide when they fell into a fumarole on the slopes of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational use</h2><br>
<p>Mammoth Mountain is home to the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area, founded by Dave McCoy in 1953. Mammoth is a ski, snowboard, and snowmobile mountain during the winter months. Mammoth is the highest ski resort in California and is notable for the unusually large amount of snowfall it receives compared to other Eastern Sierra peaks—about 400" annually and about 300 out of 365 days of sunshine—due to its location in a low gap in the Sierra crest. In the summer months the ski gondolas are used by mountain bikers and tourists who wish to get a summit view of Long Valley Caldera directly to the east and Sierra peaks to the west, south and north. To the south of the mountain, there are a number of lakes that serve as tourist attractions in the summer.</p><br>
<p>Merv , formerly Achaemenid Satrapy of Margiana, and later Alexandria   and Antiochia in Margiana , was a major oasis-city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, located near today&#39;s Mary in Turkmenistan.</p><br>
<p>Several cities have existed on this site, which is significant for the interchange of culture and politics at a site of major strategic value. The site of ancient Merv has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. (See List of World Heritage Sites in Turkmenistan)</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Merv has prehistoric roots: archaeological surveys have revealed many traces of village life as far back as the 3rd millennium BC and have associated the area culturally with the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. The geography of the Zend-Avesta (commentaries on the Avesta) mentions Merv (under the name of Mouru) along with Balkh. In Zoroastrianism, the god Ahura Mazda created Mouru as one of sixteen perfect lands.</p><br>
<p>Under the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BC), the historical record mentions Merv as a place of some importance: under the name of Margu it occurs as part of one of the satrapies in the Behistun inscriptions (ca. 515 BC) of the Persian monarch Darius Hystaspis. The first city of Merv was founded in the 6th century BC as part of the Achaemenid expansion into the region of Cyrus the Great (559–530 BC), but later strata deeply cover the Achaemenid levels at the site.</p><br>
<h3>Hellenistic era</h3><br>
<p>Alexander the Greats visit to Merv is merely legendary, but the city was named Alexandria (soon - Margiana) (Ἀλεξάνδρεια) after him for a time. After Alexanders death in 323 BC, Merv became the capital of the Province of Margiana of the Seleucid, Bactrian (256-125 BC), Parthian, and Sassanid states. The Seleucid ruler Antiochus Soter (reigned 281–261 BC) renamed Merv as Antiochia Margiana; he rebuilt and expanded the city at the site presently known as Gyaur Gala (Turkish Gayur Kala) (Fortress). After the fall of the Seleucid dynasty (63 BC), Bactria, Parthia, and the Kushans took control in succession. Merv was a major city of Buddhist learning, with Buddhist monastery temples for many centuries until its Islamicization. At the site of Gyaur Kala and Bairam Ali Buddhism was followed and practised often at the Buddhist stupa.</p><br>
<p>After the Sassanid Ardashir I (220–240 AD) took Merv, the study of numismatics picks up the thread: the unbroken series of coins originally minted at Merv document a long unbroken direct Sassanian rule of almost four centuries. During this period Merv was home to practitioners of various religions beside the official Sassanid Zoroastrianism, including Buddhists, Manichaeans, and Christians of the Church of the East. Between the 6th (553) and 11th centuries AD, Merv served as the seat of an East Syrian metropolitan province, key in the Dualist church&#39;s mission east up the Silk Road to Turkestan and China. The Hephthalite (Hun) occupation from the end of the 5th century to 565. briefly interrupted Sassanid rule.</p><br>
<h3>Arab occupation and influence</h3><br>
<p>Merv gained renewed importance in February 748 when the Iranian general Abu Muslim (d. 755) declared a new Abbasid dynasty at Merv, expanding and re-founding the city, and, in the name of the Abbasid line, used the city as a base of rebellion against the Umayyad caliphate. After the Abbasids became established in Baghdad, Abu Muslim continued to rule Merv as a semi-independent prince until his eventual assassination. Indeed, Merv operated as the center of Abbasid partisanship for the duration of the Abbasid Revolution of 746-750, and later on became a consistent source of political support for the Abbasid rulers in Baghdad; the governorship of Khurasan at Merv was considered one of the most important political figures of the Caliphate. The influential Barmakid family, based in Merv, played an important part in transferring Greek knowledge (established in Merv since the days of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians) into the Arab world.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the Abbasid era (750-1258), Merv remained the capital and most important city of Khurasan. During this time, the Arab historian Al-Muqaddasi (c. 945/946 - 991) called Merv "delightful, fine, elegant, brilliant, extensive, and pleasant". Mervs architecture perhaps provided the inspiration for the Abbasid re-planning of Baghdad. The city was notable as a home for immigrants from the Arab lands as well as for those from Sogdia and elsewhere in Central Asia (Herrmann 1999). In the period from 813 to 818, the temporary residency of the caliph al-Mamun effectively made Merv the capital of the Muslim world and highlighted Merv&#39;s importance to the Abbasids. Merv also became the center of a major 8th-century Neo-Mazdakite movement led by al-Muqanna, the "Veiled Prophet", who gained many followers by claiming to be an incarnation of God and heir to Abu Muslim; the Khurramiyya inspired by him persisted in Merv until the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>During this period Merv, like Samarkand and Bukhara, functioned as one of the great cities of Muslim scholarship; the celebrated historian Yaqut (1179–1229) studied in its libraries. Merv produced a number of scholars in various branches of knowledge, such as Islamic law, hadith, history, and literature. Several scholars have the name Marwazi المروزي designating them as hailing from Merv, including the famous Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780–855). The city continued to have a substantial Christian community. In 1009 the Archbishop of Merv sent a letter to the Patriarch at Baghdad asking that the Keraites be allowed to fast less than other Nestorian Christians.</p><br>
<p>As the caliphate weakened, Arab rule in Merv was replaced by that of the Persian general Tahir b. al -Husayn and his Tahirid dynasty in 821. The Tahirids ruled Merv from 821 to 873, followed by the Saffarids (873-), then the Samanids and later the Ghaznavids.</p><br>
<h3>Turks in Merv</h3><br>
<p>In 1037, the Seljuks, a clan of Oghuz Turks moving from the steppes east of the Aral Sea, peacefully took over Merv under the leadership of Toghril Beg—the Ghaznavid sultan Masud was extremely unpopular in the city. Togrul&#39;s brother Çagry stayed in Merv as the Seljuk domains grew to include the rest of Khurasan and Iran, and it subsequently became a favorite city of the Seljuk leadership. Alp Arslan (Sultan: 1063-1072) and his descendant Sultan Sanjar (died 1157) were both buried at Merv.</p><br>
<p>During this period Merv expanded to its greatest size—Arab and Persian geographers termed it "the mother of the world", the "rendezvous of great and small", the "chief city of Khurasan" and the capital of the eastern Islamic world. Written sources also attest to a large library and madrasa founded by Nizam al-Mulk (Vizier: 1064-1092), as well as many other major cultural institutions. Perhaps most importantly, Merv was said to have a market that is "the best of the major cities of Iran and Khurasan" (Herrmann 1999).</p><br>
<p>Sanjars rule, marked by conflict with the Kara-Khitai and Khwarazmians, ended in 1153 when Turkish Ghuzz nomads from beyond the Amu Darya pillaged the city. Subsequently, Merv changed hands between the Khwarazmians of Khiva, the Ghuzz, and the Ghurids - it began to lose importance relative to Khurasans other major city, Nishapur.</p><br>
<h3>Mongols in Merv</h3><br>
<p>In 1221 Merv opened its gates to Tolui, son of Genghis Khan, chief of the Mongols, on which occasion most of the inhabitants are said to have been butchered. The Persian historian Juvayni, writing a generation after the destruction of Merv, wrote</p><br>
<p>Some historians believe that over one million people died in the aftermath of the city&#39;s capture, including hundreds of thousands of refugees from elsewhere, making it one of the most bloody captures of a city in world history.</p><br>
<p>Excavations revealed drastic rebuilding of the city&#39;s fortifications in the aftermath, but the prosperity of the city had passed. The Mongol invasion spelt the eclipse of Merv and indeed of other major centres for more than a century. After the Mongol conquest, Merv became part of the Ilkhanate and was consistently looted by Chagatai Khanate. In the early part of the 14th century the town became the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the Eastern Church under the rule of the Kartids, vassals of the Ilkhanids. By 1380 Merv belonged to the empire of Timur (Tamerlane).</p><br>
<h3>Uzbeks in Merv and its final destruction</h3><br>
<p>In 1505 the Uzbeks occupied Merv; five years later Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, expelled them. In this period a Persian nobleman restored a large dam (the Soltanbent) on the river Murghab, and the settlement which grew up in the area thus irrigated became known as "Baýramaly", as referenced in some 19th-century texts. Merv remained in the hands of Persia (except for periods of Uzbek rule between 1524 and 1528 and again between 1588 and 1598) until 1785, when Shah Murad, the Emir of Bokhara, captured the city. A few years later, in 1788 and 1789, the Bukharan Shah Murad Beg razed the city to the ground, broke down the dams, and converted the district into a waste. The entire population of the city and the surrounding oasis of about 100,000 were then deported in several stages to the Bukharan oasis and the Zarafshan Valley. Being nearly all Azerbaijani Turkish-speaking Shi&#39;as from the Izzeddinlu branch of Qajar tribe, the deportees resisted assimilation into the Sunni population of Bukhara, despite the common language they spoke with most Bukharan natives. These Marvis survive — Soviet censuses listed them as "Iranis/Iranians" through the 1980s. They live in Samarkand as well as in Bukhara and in the area in between on the Zarafshan river.</p><br>
<h3>Nineteenth century</h3><br>
<p>Merv passed to the Khanate of Khiva in 1823. Sir Alexander Burnes traversed the country in 1832. About this time, the Tekke Turkomans, then living on the Tejen River, were forced by the Persians to migrate northward. Khiva contested the advance of the Tekkes, but ultimately, about 1856, the latter became the sovereign power in the country, and remained so until the Russians occupied the oasis in 1884. By 1868 the Russians had taken most of Russian Central Asia except Turkmenistan. They approached this area from the Caspian and in 1881 captured Geok Tepe. Merv was taken bloodlessly by an officer named Alikhanov. A Muslim from the Caucasus, he had risen to the rank of major in the Russian service. After fighting a duel with a superior officer he was demoted to the ranks and by 1882 had risen to lieutenant. In 1882 he entered Merv, claiming to be a Russian merchant, and negotiated a trade agreement. Meanwhile, Russian agents had used a mixture of bribes and threats to develop a pro-Russian party in the area. The Russians occupied the oasis of Tejen, eighty miles to the west. In 1884 Alikhanov entered Merv in the uniform of a Russian officer along with a number of Turkoman notables who had already submitted. He claimed that the troops at Tejen were the spearhead of a larger force and that local autonomy would be respected. Seeing no hope of support from Persia or Britain, the elders submitted. The next Russian move was south toward Herat.</p><br>
<h2>Remains</h2><br>
<p>Some exploratory excavations at Merv were conducted in 1885 by the Russian general A.V. Komarov, the governor of the Transcaspian oblast, 1883–89; Komarov employed his Tsarist troops as excavators and published his collection of trophy artifacts and coins from the area in 1900. The first fully professional dig was directed by Valentin Alekseevich Zhukovsky of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, in 1890 and published in 1894. The American Carnegie Institute&#39;s excavations were under the direction of a geologist, Raphael Pumpelly, and a German archaeologist, Hubert Schmidt.</p><br>
<p>Merv is currently the focus of the Ancient Merv Project (initially as the International Merv Project). From 1992 to 2000, a joint team of archaeologists from Turkmenistan and the UK have made remarkable discoveries. In 2001, a new collaboration was started between the Institute of Archaeology, University College London and the Turkmen authorities. This Ancient Merv Project is concerned with the complex conservation and management issues posed by this remarkable site, furthering our understanding of the site through archaeological research, and disseminating the results of the work to the widest possible audience.</p><br>
<h3>Organization of remains</h3><br>
<p>Merv consists of a few discrete walled cities very near to each other, each of which was constructed on uninhabited land by builders of different eras, used, and then abandoned and never rebuilt. Four walled cities correspond to the chief periods of Merv&#39;s importance: the oldest, Erkgala, corresponds to Achaemenid Merv, and is the smallest of the three. Gäwürgala (also known as Gyaur Gala), which surrounds Erkgala, comprises the Hellenistic and Sassanian metropolis and also served as an industrial suburb to the Abbasid/Seljuk city, Soltangala – by far the largest of the three. The smaller Timurid city was founded a short distance to the south and is now called Abdyllahangala. Various other ancient buildings are scattered between and around these four cities; all of the sites are preserved in the “Ancient Merv Archaeological Park” just north of the modern village of Baýramaly and thirty kilometers east of the large Soviet-built city of Mary (Herrmann 1993).</p><br>
<h4>Erk Gala</h4><br>
<h4>Gäwürgala</h4><br>
<p>The foundation of Gäwürgala (Turkmen take from Persian "Gabr Qala" ("Fortress of the Zoroastrians") occurred in the early Hellenistic era under the rule of the Seleucid king Antiochus I. The city was continuously inhabited under a series of Hellenistic rulers, by the Parthians, and subsequently under the Sassanids, who made it the capital of a satrapy. Gäwürgala was the capital of the Umayyad province of Khurasan and grew in importance as Khurasan became the most loyally Muslim part of the Iranian world during Islam&#39;s first two centuries.</p><br>
<p>Gäwürgalas most visible remaining structures are its defensive installations. Three walls, one built atop the next, are in evidence. A Seleucid wall, graduated in the interior and straight on the exterior, forms a platform for the second, larger wall, built of mudbricks and stepped on the interior. The form of this wall is similar to other Hellenistic fortresses found in Anatolia, though this unique for being made of mud-brick instead of stone. The third wall is possibly Sassanian and is built of larger bricks (Williams 2002). Surrounding the wall was a variety of pottery sherds, particularly Parthian ones. The size of these fortifications are evidence of Mervs importance during the pre-Islamic era; no pre-Islamic fortifications of comparable size have been found anywhere in the Garagum. Gäwürgala is also important for the vast amount of numismatic data that it has revealed; an unbroken series of Sassanian coins has been found there, hinting the extraordinary political stability of this period.</p><br>
<p>Even after the foundation of Soltangala by Abu Muslim at the start of the Abbasid dynasty, Gäwürgala persisted as a suburb of the larger Soltangala. In Gäwürgala are concentrated many Abbasid-era "industrial" buildings: pottery kilns, steel, iron and copper-working workshops and so on. A well-preserved pottery kiln has an intact vaulted arch support and a square firepit. Gyaur Gala seems to have been the craftsmens&#39; quarters throughout the Abbasid and pre-Seljuk periods (Herrmann, "Seventh Season" 13).</p><br>
<h4>Soltangala</h4><br>
<p>Soltangala (from Sultan Qala, the sultans fortress) is by far the largest of Mervs cities. Textual sources (Herrmann 1999) establish that it was Abu Muslim, the leader of the Abbasid rebellion, who symbolized the beginning of the new Caliphate by commissioning monumental structures to the west of the Gäwürgala walls, in what then became Soltangala. The area was quickly walled and became the core of medieval Merv; centuries of prosperity which followed are attested to by the many Abbasid-era köshks discovered in and outside of Soltangala. Kushks (Persian, Kushk, "pavilion", "kiosk"), which comprise the chief remains of Abbasid Merv, are a building type unique to Central Asia during this period. A kind of semi-fortified two-story palace whose corrugated walls give it a unique and striking appearance, köshks were the residences of Mervs elite. The second story of these structures comprised living quarters; the first story may have been used for storage. Parapets lined the roof, which was often used for living quarters as well. Mervs largest and best-preserved Abbasid köşk is the Greater Gyzgala (Turkmen, "maidens fortress"), located just outside the Soltangalas western wall; this structure consisted of 17 rooms surrounding a central courtyard. The nearby Lesser Gyzgala had extraordinarily thick walls with deep corrugations, as well as multiple interior stairways leading to second-story living quarters. All of Merv&#39;s kushks are in precarious states of preservation (Herrmann 1999).</p><br>
<p>However, the most important of Soltangalas surviving buildings are Seljuk constructions. In the 11th century CE, the nomadic Oghuz Turks, formerly vassals of the Khwarazmshah in the northern steppes, began to move southward under the leadership of the Seljuk clan and its ruler Togrul Beg. Togruls conquest of Merv in 1037 revitalized the city; under his descendants, especially Sanjar, who made it his residence, Merv found itself at the center of a large multicultural empire.</p><br>
<p>Evidence of this prosperity is found throughout the Soltangala. Many of these are concentrated in Soltangalas citadel, the Shahryar Ark (Persian, "the Sovereigns citadel") of the, located on its east side. In the center of the Sharhryar Ark is located the Seljuk palace probably built by Sanjar. The surviving mud brick walls lead to the conclusion that this palace, relatively small, was composed of tall single-story rooms surrounding a central court along with four axial iwans at the entrance to each side (Ettinghausen 276). Low areas nearby seem to indicate a large garden which included an artificial lake; similar gardens were found in other Central Asian palaces (Williams 2002). Any remnants of interior or exterior decoration have been lost due to erosion or theft.</p><br>
<p>Another notable Seljuk structure within the Shahryar Ark is the kepderihana (from Persian, "Kaftar Khana, or "pigeon house", i.e., the columbarium). This mysterious building, among the best-preserved in the whole Merv oasis, comprises one long and narrow windowless room with many tiers of niches across the walls. It is believed by some that the kepter khana (there are more elsewhere in Merv and Central Asia) was indeed a pigeon roost used to raise pigeons, in order to collect their dung which is used in growing the melons for which Merv was famous. Others, just as justifiably (Herrmann 1999), see the kepderihanas as libraries or treasuries, due to their location in high status areas next to important structures.</p><br>
<p>The best-preserved of all the structures in Merv is the 12th-century mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar, also in Sultan Gala. It is the largest of Seljuk mausoleums and is also the first dated mosque-mausoleum complex, a form which was later to become common. It is square, 27 meters per side, with two entrances on opposite sides; a large central dome supported by an octagonal system of ribs and arches covers the interior (Ettinghausen 270). The domes exterior was turquoise, and its height made it quite imposing; it was said that approaching caravans could see the mausoleum while still a days march from the city. The mausoleum&#39;s decoration, in typical early Seljuk style, was conservative, with interior stucco work and geometric brick decoration, now mainly lost, on the outside (Ettinghausen 271). With the exception of the recently "reconstructed" exterior decoration, the mausoleum is largely intact, and remains, just as is in the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>A final set of Seljuk remains are the walls of the Soltangala. These fortifications, which in large part still remain, began as 8 to 9 m mud brick structures, inside of which were chambers for defenders to shoot arrows from. There were horseshoe-shaped towers every 15 to 35 m. These walls, however, did not prove to be effective because they were not of adequate thickness to withstand catapults and other artillery. By the mid-12th century, the galleries were filled in, and the wall was greatly strengthened. A secondary, smaller wall was built in front of the Soltangalas main wall, and finally the medieval citys suburbs – known today as Isgendergala – were enclosed by a 5 m wall. The three walls sufficed to hold off the Mongol army for at least one of its offensives, before ultimately succumbing in 1221.</p><br>
<p>Many ceramics have also been recovered from the Abbasid and Seljuk eras, primarily from Gäwürgala, the city walls of Soltangala, and the Shahryar Ark. The Gäwürgala ware was primarily late Abbasid, and it consisted primarily of red slip-painted bowls with geometric designs. The pottery recovered from the Sultan Gala walls is dominated by 11th–12th-century color-splashed yellow and green pottery, similar to contemporary styles common in Nishapur (Herrmann 2000). Turquoise and black bowls were discovered in the Shahryar Ark palace, as well as an interesting deposit of Mongol-style pottery perhaps related to the city&#39;s unsuccessful re-foundation under the Il-khans. Also from this era is a ceramic mask used for decorating walls found among the ruins of what is believed – not without controversy – to be a Mongol-built Buddhist temple in the southern suburbs of Sultan Gala.</p><br>
<h4>Shaim Kala</h4><br>
<p>Shaim Kala was built in the 7th century AD. Shaim Kala was a self-contained walled city intended to relieve the over-crowding, and to deal with religious and political discontent of the newly arrived peoples.</p><br>
<h4>Abdyllahangala</h4><br>
<p>Abdyllahangala is the post medieval Timrid era city to the south of the main complex.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The present inhabitants of the oasis are primarily Turkmens of the Teke tribe and some Persians/Tajiks. There are relatively large minorities of the Beluch/Baluch and the Brahui in the Merv Oasis as well.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The oasis is irrigated by an elaborate system of canals cut from the Murghab. The country has at all times been renowned throughout the East for its fertility. Every kind of cereal and many fruits grow in great abundance, e.g. wheat, millet, barley and melons, also rice and cotton. Cotton seeds from archaeological levels as far back as the 5th century are the first indication that cotton textiles were already an important economic component of the Sassanian city. Silkworms have been bred. The Turkomans possess a famous breed of horses and keep camels, sheep, cattle, asses and mules. Turkomans are workers in silver and armour. One of the discoveries of the 1990s excavations was a 9th- to 10th-century workshop where crucible steel was being produced, confirming in detail contemporary Islamic reports by Islamic scholar, al-Kindi (AD 801–866). He referred to the region of Khorasan as producing steel. This was made by a co-fusion process in which cast iron and wrought iron are melted together.</p><br>
<p>Carpets from the region of Merv are sometimes considered superior to the Persian. They also make felts and a rough cloth of sheep&#39;s wool.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The oasis of Merv is situated on the Murghab River that flows down from Afghanistan, on the southern edge of the Karakum Desert, at 37°30’N and 62°E, about 230 mi north of Herat, and 280 mi south of Khiva. Its area is about 1,900 square miles. The great chain of mountains which, under the names of Paropamisade and Hindu Kush, extends from the Caspian Sea to the Pamir Mountains is interrupted some 180 mi south of Merv. Through or near this gap flow northwards in parallel courses the Tejen and Murgab rivers, until they lose themselves in the Karakum Desert. Thus they make Merv a sort of watch tower over the entrance into Afghanistan on the north-west and at the same time create a stepping-stone or étape between north-east Persia and the states of Bokhara and Samarkand.</p><br>
<p>Merv is advantageously situated in the inland delta of the Murghab River, which flows from its source in the Hindu Kush northwards through the Garagum desert. The Murghab delta region, known to the Greeks as Margiana, gives Merv two distinct advantages: first, it provides an easy southeast-northwest route from the Afghan highlands towards the lowlands of Karakum, the Amu Darya valley and Khwarezm. Second, the Murgab delta, being a large well-watered zone in the midst of the dry Karakum, serves as a natural stopping-point for the routes from northwest Iran towards Transoxiana – the Silk Roads. The delta, and thus Merv, lies at the junction of these two routes: the northwest-southeast route to Herat and Balkh (to the Indus and beyond) and the southwest-northeast route from Tus and Nishapur to Bukhara and Samarkand.</p><br>
<p>This place was a stop on the Silk Road during the time of the Han dynasty. Here merchants could trade for fresh horses or camels at this oasis city.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Merv is dry and hot in summer and cold in winter. The heat of summer is oppressive. The wind raises clouds of fine dust which fill the air, rendering it opaque, almost obscuring the noonday sun. These clouds make breathing difficult. In winter the climate is pleasant. Snow falls rarely, and when it does, it melts at once. The annual rainfall rarely exceeds 125 mm, and there is often no rain from June until October. While in summer temperatures can reach 45 &deg;C, in winter it they can be as low as -7 &deg;C. The average yearly temperature is 16 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns and sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Merv is twinned with</p><br>
<p>Balkh</p><br>
<p>Baku</p><br>
<p>Wuhan</p><br>
<p>Zagreb</p><br>
<p>Cairo</p><br>
<p>Nishapur, Tabriz, Hamedan and Isfahan</p><br>
<p>Baghdad, Karbala and Kirkuk</p><br>
<p>Jerusalem</p><br>
<p>Venice</p><br>
<p>Kuwait City</p><br>
<p>Lahore</p><br>
<p>Gaza</p><br>
<p>Saint Petersburg</p><br>
<p>Medina and Mecca</p><br>
<p>Damascus and Aleppo</p><br>
<p>Khujand</p><br>
<p>Istanbul, Konya, Bursa and İzmir</p><br>
<p>Nisa and Old Urgench</p><br>
<p>Dubai</p><br>
<p>Bukhara and Samarkand.</p><br>
<p>The Summer Palace, is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing, China. It was an imperial garden in Qing Dynasty. Mainly dominated by Longevity Hill and Kunming Lake, it covers an expanse of 2.9 km&sup2, three-quarters of which is water.</p><br>
<p>Longevity Hill is about 60 metres (200 feet) high and has many buildings positioned in sequence. The front hill is rich with splendid halls and pavilions, while the back hill, in sharp contrast, is quiet with natural beauty. The central Kunming Lake, covering 2.2 km&sup2, was entirely man-made and the excavated soil was used to build Longevity Hill.</p><br>
<p>In December 1998, UNESCO included the Summer Palace on its World Heritage List. It declared the Summer Palace "a masterpiece of Chinese landscape garden design. The natural landscape of hills and open water is combined with artificial features such as pavilions, halls, palaces, temples and bridges to form a harmonious ensemble of outstanding aesthetic value".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Qing dynasty</h3><br>
<p>The origins of the Summer Palace date back to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1153, when the fourth ruler, Wanyan Liang (r. 1150–1161), moved the Jin capital from Huining Prefecture (in present-day Acheng District, Harbin, Heilongjiang) to Yanjing (present-day Beijing). He ordered the construction of a palace in the Fragrant Hills and Jade Spring Hill in the northwest of Beijing.</p><br>
<p>Around 1271, after the Yuan dynasty established its capital in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), the engineer Guo Shoujing initiated a waterworks project to direct the water from Shenshan Spring in Baifu Village, Changping into the Western Lake, which would later become Kunming Lake. Guo&#39;s aim was to create a water reservoir that would ensure a stable water supply for the palace.</p><br>
<p>In 1494, the Hongzhi Emperor (r. 1487–1505) of the Ming dynasty had a Yuanjing Temple built for his wet nurse, Lady Luo, in front of Jar Hill, which was later renamed Longevity Hill. The temple fell into disrepair over the years and was abandoned, and the area around the hill became lush with vegetation. The Zhengde Emperor (r. 1505–21), who succeeded the Hongzhi Emperor, built a palace on the banks of the Western Lake and turned the area into an imperial garden. He renamed Jar Hill, "Golden Hill" and named the lake "Golden Sea". Both the Zhengde Emperor and the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) enjoyed taking boat rides on the lake. During the reign of the Tianqi Emperor (r. 1620–27), the court eunuch Wei Zhongxian took the imperial garden as his personal property.</p><br>
<h3>Qing dynasty</h3><br>
<p>In the early Qing dynasty, Jar Hill served as the site for horse stables in the imperial palace. Eunuchs who committed offences were sent there to weed and cut grass.</p><br>
<p>In the beginning of the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735-1796), many imperial gardens were built in the area around present-day Beijings Haidian District and accordingly, water consumption increased tremendously. At the time, much of the water stored in the Western Lake came from the freshwater spring on Jade Spring Hill, while a fraction came from the Wanquan River. Any disruption of the water flow from Jade Spring Hill would affect the capitals water transport and water supply systems.</p><br>
<p>Around 1749, the Qianlong Emperor decided to build a palace in the vicinity of Jar Hill and the Western Lake to celebrate the 60th birthday of his mother, Empress Dowager Chongqing. In the name of improving the capital&#39;s waterworks system, he ordered the Western Lake to be expanded further west to create two more lakes, Gaoshui Lake and Yangshui Lake. The three lakes served not only as a reservoir for the imperial gardens, but also a source of water for the surrounding agricultural areas. The Qianlong Emperor collectively named the three lakes "Kunming Lake" after the Kunming Pool constructed by Emperor Wu (r. 141–187 BCE) in the Han dynasty for the training of his navy. The earth excavated from the expansion of Kunming Lake was used to enlarge Jar Hill, which was renamed "Longevity Hill". The Summer Palace, whose construction was completed in 1764 at a cost of over 4.8 million silver taels, was first named "Qingyiyuan".</p><br>
<p>The design of the Summer Palace was based on a legend in Chinese mythology about three divine mountains in the East Sea, namely Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou. The three islands in Kunming Lake – Nanhu Island, Tuancheng Island and Zaojiantang Island – were built to represent the three mountains, while the lake itself was based on a blueprint of the West Lake in Hangzhou. Besides, many architectural features in the palace were also built to resemble or imitate various attractions around China. For example: the Phoenix Pier represented Lake Tai; the Jingming Tower resembled Yueyang Tower, Hunan; the Wangchan Pavilion resembled Yellow Crane Tower; the shopping streets were designed to imitate those in Suzhou and Yangzhou. The centrepiece of the Summer Palace was the "Great Temple of Gratitude and Longevity". There was also a Long Corridor more than 700 metres long which was furnished with artistic decorations. As the palace was not equipped with facilities for long-term staying and daily administration of state affairs, the Qianlong Emperor hardly lived there and only remained there for the day whenever he visited it.</p><br>
<p>As the Qing Empire started declining after the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850), the Summer Palace gradually became more neglected and the architectural features on the three islands were ordered to be dismantled because the costs of maintenance were too high.</p><br>
<p>In 1860, the French and British looted the Summer Palace at the end of the Second Opium War and on October 18, 1860 the British burned down the nearby Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan). The destruction of the palace was ordered by Lord Elgin, the British High Commissioner to China, and was undertaken in response to the torture and killing of two British envoys, a journalist for The Times, and their escorts. The destruction of large parts of the Summer Palace still evokes strong emotions among some people in China.</p><br>
<p>Between 1884–95, during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor (r. 1875–1908), Empress Dowager Cixi ordered 22 million silver taels, originally designated for upgrading the Qing navy (the Beiyang Fleet), to be used for reconstructing and enlarging the Summer Palace to celebrate her 60th birthday. As the funds were limited, the construction works were concentrated on the buildings in front of Longevity Hill and the dams around Kunming Lake. The Summer Palace was also given its present-day Chinese name, "Yiheyuan", in 1888.</p><br>
<p>In 1900, towards the end of the Boxer Rebellion, the Summer Palace suffered damages again when the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance destroyed the imperial gardens and seized many artifacts stored in the palace. The palace was restored two years later.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Qing dynasty</h3><br>
<p>In 1912, following the abdication of Puyi, the Last Emperor, the Summer Palace became the private property of the former imperial family of the Qing Empire. Two years later, the Summer Palace was opened to the public and entry tickets were sold. In 1924, after Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord Feng Yuxiang, the Beijing municipal government took charge of administrating the Summer Palace and turned it into a public park.</p><br>
<p>After 1949, the Summer Palace briefly housed the Central Party School of the Communist Party of China. Many of Mao Zedong&#39;s friends and key figures in the Communist Party, such as Liu Yazi and Jiang Qing, also lived there. Since 1953, many major restoration and renovation works have been done on the Summer Palace, which is now open to the public as a tourist attraction and park.</p><br>
<p>In November 1998, the Summer Palace was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Towards the end of 2006, the Chinese government also started distributing commemorative coins to celebrate the Summer Palace as a cultural relic of the world.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>The entire Summer Palace is centered around Longevity Hill and Kunming Lake, with the latter covering about three quarters of the area. Most of the important buildings were built along the north–south axis of Longevity Hill, which is divided into the front hill and the back hill. There are three small islands within Kunming Lake: Nanhu Island, Zaojiantang Island and Zhijingge Island. The West Dam of Kunming Lake divides the lake into two. The East Dam was constructed during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor. The attractions in the Summer Palace may be divided into six different sections or scenic areas: the Halls, Longevity Hill, Kunming Lake, the Farming and Weaving Picture Scenic Area, the Long Corridor, and the Central Axis area.</p><br>
<h3>Front Hill</h3><br>
<p>Eastern Palace Gate: The main entrance to the Summer Palace. The two bronze lions on either side of the gate are preserved from the Qianlong Emperor&#39;s time while the Cloud Dragon Steps in front of the gate are relics from the Old Summer Palace. The three Chinese characters "Yiheyuan" on the sign above the gate were written by the Guangxu Emperor.</p><br>
<p>Hall of Benevolence and Longevity: The hall where court sessions were held. It was called "Hall of Good Governance" in the Qianlong Emperor&#39;s time but was given its present-day name by the Guangxu Emperor. The well north of the hall is called "Year-Prolonging Well" while the rockery behind the hall was designed to imitate the Lion Grove Garden in Suzhou. The stalactites are relics from the Old Summer Palace.</p><br>
<p>Hall of Jade Billows: Located west of the Hall of Benevolence and Longevity. It was the living quarters of the Qing emperors. The Guangxu Emperor was once confined here by Empress Dowager Cixi.</p><br>
<p>Yiyun Hall: Located north of the Hall of Jade Billows. It was originally a library in the Qianlong Emperors time, but became the living quarters of Empress Longyu in the Guangxu Emperors time. It housed a collection of stone carvings of calligraphy written by the Qianlong Emperor.</p><br>
<p>Houses the three-storey Great Opera Hall, where opera performances were staged.</p><br>
<p>Hall of Joy and Longevity: The living quarters of Empress Dowager Cixi.</p><br>
<p>Long Corridor: Stretches from the Hall of Joy and Longevity in the east to Shizhang Pavilion in the west. The entire corridor is 728 metres long and contains artistic decorations, including paintings of famous places in China, and scenes from Chinese mythology and folktales, The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars and the Four Great Classical Novels.</p><br>
<p>Hall of Dispelling Clouds: Situated on the centre of the central axis of Longevity Hill. Originally the Great Temple of Gratitude and Longevity, it was renovated in 1892 and became a place for Empress Dowager Cixi to receive guests, host grand ceremonies, and celebrate her birthday.</p><br>
<p>Tower of Buddhist Incense: Located right in the centre of the front hill of Longevity Mountain. The tower was originally meant to be a nine-storey Buddhist pagoda built to resemble the Yellow Crane Tower. The Qianlong Emperor ordered the construction to be stopped just after the eighth storey was built. The tower was built on a 20-metre-tall stone base, measures three stories and 41 metres in height, and is supported by eight ironwood pillars. Empress Dowager Cixi visited the tower to offer incense and pray.</p><br>
<p>Sea of Wisdom: Located on the peak of Longevity Hill. It was built from coloured glass and houses over 1,000 statues of Buddhist figures. It was partially damaged during the Cultural Revolution.</p><br>
<p>Stele of Longevity Hill and Kunming Lake: Located east of the Hall of Dispelling Clouds. The stele bears six Chinese characters written by the Qianlong Emperor.</p><br>
<p>Pavilion of Precious Clouds: Located west of the Tower of Buddhist Incense. It was originally called "Bronze Pavilion" and was built in 1755. The doors and windows were stolen by soldiers from the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900. In the 1980s, they were purchased by overseas Chinese and donated back to the Summer Palace.</p><br>
<p>Stone Boat: The Stone Boat is 96 metres long. The original wooden boat was burnt in 1860 and has been replaced with a marble copy with western style paddle wheels.</p><br>
<p>Oriole-Listening Hall: Located west of Longevity Hill. It used to be where Empress Dowager Cixi watched opera performancees. The hall is now converted into a restaurant specialising in Qing imperial cuisine.</p><br>
<p>Huazhongyou: Located west of Longevity Hill.</p><br>
<p>East of the Front Hill: Has many pavilions and halls.</p><br>
<p>West of the Front Hill: Has many pavilions and halls.</p><br>
<p>West of the Long Corridor: There is a "West Four Hall" located north of Shizhang Pavilion. The Guangxu Emperors Consort Zhen was confined in the hall by Empress Dowager Cixi. It used to be the west entrance into the Summer Palace during the Qianlong Emperors time.</p><br>
<h3>Back Hill</h3><br>
<p>Suzhou Street: In 1762, after returning from touring the Jiangnan region, the Qianlong Emperor ordered the construction of a shopping street resembling Shantang Street in Suzhou. The street was destroyed by the British and French in 1860 and was only restored in 1988.</p><br>
<p>Garden of Harmonious Pleasures: Located in the northeast corner of the Summer Palace. In 1751, when the Qianlong Emperor toured the Jiangnan region, he was so impressed with Jichang Garden in Wuxi that he ordered a Huishan Garden to be built in the Summer Palace and modelled after Jichang Garden. Huishan Garden was renamed "Xiequ Garden" in 1811.</p><br>
<p>Four Great Regions: Located on the centre of the central axis of the back hill. It was designed to resemble the Samye Monastery in Tibet, and houses statues of Bhaisajyaguru, the Buddha and Amitābha. It was destroyed by the British and French in 1860 but was restored later.</p><br>
<p>Flower Pavilion and Glass Tower: Located east of the back hill. It was destroyed by the British and French in 1860; only the Glass Tower remains. During the Cultural Revolution, the Buddhist statue at the bottom of the tower was disfigured by the Red Guards.</p><br>
<p>Former Location of Gaichunyuan: Located west of the back hill. A small garden was built there during the Qianlong Emperor&#39;s time and the emperor also had his personal study room there. Gaichunyuan was mostly destroyed by the British and French in 1860.</p><br>
<p>Former Location of Qiwang Pavilion: Located west of the back hill beside the lake. A small garden was built there during the Qianlong Emperor&#39;s time.</p><br>
<h3>Eastern Dam</h3><br>
<p>Zhichun Pavilion: Located on the east bank of Kunming Lake at the south of the Hall of Jade Billows.</p><br>
<p>Wenchang Tower: Built to resemble a city gate. It served as an important entry point into the Summer Palace from the east and south during the Qianlong Emperor&#39;s time. The Wenchang Hall beside Wenchang Tower displays cultural artefacts from the Summer Palace.</p><br>
<p>Kuoru Pavilion: Situated in the middle of the eastern dam, east of the 17 Openings Bridge. It covered an area of 130 square metres.</p><br>
<p>Bronze Ox: A bronze statue of an ox built in 1755.</p><br>
<p>Yelü Chucai Shrine: A shrine built by the Qianlong Emperor to commemorate Yelü Chucai, an influential statesman in the Mongol Empire. It was closed down after 2003 and its front section was converted into a souvenir shop.</p><br>
<h3>Nanhu Island</h3><br>
<p>17-Arch Bridge: Has 17 different types of arches on it. It incorporates features of the Precious Belt Bridge in Suzhou and the Lugou Bridge in Beijing. The entire bridge is 150 metres long and eight metres wide.</p><br>
<p>Dragon King Temple: A temple built to worship the Dragon King.</p><br>
<p>Hanxu Hall: Located at the north of Nanhu Island, directly facing the Tower of Buddhist Incense on the north bank.</p><br>
<h3>Western Dam</h3><br>
<p>Lake Dividing Bridge: The bridge that separates Kunming Lake from the northern lake.</p><br>
<p>Jade Belt Bridge</p><br>
<p>Binfeng Bridge</p><br>
<p>Jingming Tower: It was destroyed by the British and French in 1860 and was restored only in 1992. It was designed to imitate Yueyang Tower.</p><br>
<p>Mirror Bridge</p><br>
<p>White Silk Bridge</p><br>
<p>Willow Bridge: Located most south of the western dam.</p><br>
<p>Farming and Weaving Picture Scenic Area: Built during the Qianlong Emperors time, it was designed to bring to life a scene from the daily lives of peasants. This area was excluded from the Summer Palace after it was renovated by Empress Dowager Cixi. In 1949, the area was occupied by the Peoples Liberation Army and a paper-making factory was built there. In 2003, the area was incorporated back into the Summer Palace and some old buildings were restored.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Tiryns or  is a Mycenaean archaeological site in Argolis in the Peloponnese, some kilometres north of Nafplio.</p><br>
<p>Tiryns was a hill fort with occupation ranging back seven thousand years, from before the beginning of the Bronze Age. It reached its height between 1400 and 1200 BCE, when it was one of the most important centers of the Mycenaean world, and in particular in Argolis. Its most notable features were its palace, its cyclopean tunnels and especially its walls, which gave the city its Homeric epithet of "mighty walled Tiryns". In ancient times, the city was linked to the myths surrounding Heracles, with some sources citing it as his birthplace.</p><br>
<p>The famous megaron of the palace of Tiryns has a large reception hall, the main room of which had a throne placed against the right wall and a central hearth bordered by four Minoan-style wooden columns that served as supports for the roof. Two of the three walls of the megaron were incorporated into an archaic temple of Hera.</p><br>
<p>The site went into decline at the end of the Mycenaean period, and was completely deserted by the time Pausanias visited in the 2nd century CE. This site was excavated by Heinrich Schliemann in 1884-1885, and is the subject of ongoing excavations by the German Archaeological Institute at Athens and the University of Heidelberg. In 1300 BCE the citadel and lower town had a population of 10,000 people covering 20-25 hectares. Despite the destruction of the palace in 1200 BCE the city population continued the increase and by 1150 BCE it had a population of 15,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Tiryns was recognized as one of the World Heritage Sites in 1999.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>Tiryns is first referenced by Homer who praised its massive walls. Ancient tradition held that the walls were built by the cyclopes because only giants of superhuman strength could have lifted the enormous stones. After viewing the walls of the ruined citadel in the 2nd century CE, the geographer Pausanias wrote that two mules pulling together could not move even the smaller stones.</p><br>
<p>Tradition also associates the walls with Proetus, the sibling of Acrisius, king of Argos. According to the legend Proetus, pursued by his brother, fled to Lycia. With the help of the Lycians, he managed to return to Argolis. There, Proetus occupied Tiryns and fortified it with the assistance of the cyclopes.</p><br>
<p>Thus Greek legend links the three Argolic centers with three mythical heroes: Acrisius, founder of the Doric colony of Argos; his sibling (brother) Proetus, founder of Tiryns; and his grandson Perseus, the founder of Mycenae. But this tradition was born at the beginning of the historical period, when Argos was fighting to become the hegemonic power in the area and needed a glorious past to compete with the other two cities.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. A lesser neolithic settlement was followed, in the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE, by a flourishing early pre-Hellenic settlement located about 15 km southeast of Mycenae, on a hill 300 m long, 45–100 m wide, and no more than 18 meters high. From this period survived under the yard of a Mycenaean palace, an imposing circular structure 28 meters in diameter, which appears to be a fortified place of refuge for the city&#39;s inhabitants in time of war, and/or a residence of a king. Its base was powerful, and was constructed from two concentric stone walls, among which there were others cross-cutting, so that the thickness reached 45 m.</p><br>
<p>The superstructure was clay and the roof was made from fire-baked tiles. The first Greek inhabitants, the creators of the Middle Helladic civilization and the Mycenaean civilization after that, settled Tiryns at the beginning of the Middle period (2000-1600 BCE) though the city underwent its greatest growth during the Mycenaean period. The Acropolis was constructed in three phases, the first at the end of the Late Helladic II period (1500-1400 BCE), the second in Late-Helladic III (1400-1300 BCE) and the third at the end of the Late-Helladic III B (1300-1200 BCE). The surviving ruins of the Mycenaean citadel date to the end of the third period. The city proper surrounded the acropolis on the plain below.</p><br>
<p>The disaster that struck the Mycenaean centers at the end of the Bronze Age affected Tiryns, but it is certain that the area of the palace was inhabited continuously until the middle of the 8th century BCE (a little later a temple was built in the ruins of the palace).</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the classical period Tiryns, like Mycenae, became a relatively insignificant city. When Cleomenis I of Sparta defeated the Argives, their slaves occupied Tiryns for many years, according to Herodotus.</p><br>
<p>Herodotus also mentions that Tiryns took part in the Battle of Plataea in 480 BCE with 400 hoplites.</p><br>
<p>Even in decline, Mycenae and Tyrins were disturbing to the Argives, who in their political propaganda wanted to monopolize the glory of legendary (and mythical) ancestors. In 468 BCE Argos completely destroyed both Mycenae and Tiryns, and transferred - according to Pausanias - the residents to Argos, to increase the population of the city. However, Strabo says that many Tirynthians moved to found the city of Halieis, modern Porto Heli.</p><br>
<p>Despite its importance, little value was given to Tiryns, its mythical rulers and traditions, by epics and drama. Pausanias dedicated a short piece (2.25.8) to Tiryns, and newer travelers, traveling to Greece in search of places where the heroes of the ancient texts lived, did not understand the significance of the city.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>The Acropolis was first excavated by the German scholar Friedrich Thiersch in 1831. In 1876, Heinrich Schliemann considered the palace of Tiryns to be medieval so he came very close to destroying the remains to excavate deeper for Mycenaean treasures. However, the next period of excavation was under Wilhelm Dörpfeld, a director of the German Archaeological Institute; this time, the ruins were estimated properly.</p><br>
<p>The excavations were repeated later by Dörpfeld with the cooperation of other German archaeologists, who continued his work until 1938. After World War II (1939–1945), the work was continued by the Institute and the Greek Archaeological Service.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological site</h2><br>
<p>The walls extend to the entire area of the top of the hill. Their bases survive throughout all of their length, and their height in some places reaching 7 meters, slightly below the original height, which is estimated at 9,10 m. The walls are quite thick, usually 6 meters, while at the points that are opened the famous tunnels up to 17 m. A strong transverse wall separates the acropolis into two sections -the south includes the palatial buildings, while the northern protects only the top of the hill area. In this second section, which dates to the end of the Mycenaean era, small gates and many tunnels occasionally open, covered with a triangular roof, which served as a refuge for the inhabitants of the lower city in times of danger.</p><br>
<p>The entrance of the citadel has always been on the east side, but had a different position and form in each of the three construction phases. In the second phase the gate had the form of the Lion Gate of Mycenae. Left there was a tower and to the right was the arm of the wall, so the gate was well protected, since the attackers were forced to cross a very narrow corridor, while the defense could hit them from above and from both sides. In the third phase the gate was moved further out. The palace of the king, inside the citadel, similar to that of Mycenae, dimensions 11.80 x 9.80 m, consists of three areas: the outer portico with the two columns, the prodomos (anteroom) and the Domos (main room) with the cyclical fireplace that was surrounded by 4 wooden columns. The lateral compartments of the palace seems to have a second floor.</p><br>
<p>Rich was the decoration of the walls of the outer arcade. They had a zone at the bottom of alabaster slabs with relief rosettes and flowers. The rest was decorated with frescos. Three doors lead to prodomos and then another to Domos. In the middle of the eastern wall is visible in the floor the place that corresponded to the royal throne. The floor was richly decorated with different themes in the area around the walls and the space between the columns of the fireplace. Of course, here the walls were decorated with paintings.</p><br>
<p>In the ruins of the mansion, which burned during the 8th century BCE, a Doric temple was built during the Geometrical period. Smaller than the mansion, it consisted of two parts, the prodomos and the cella. The width of the temple was just greater than half that of the mansion, while the back wall of the temple reached the height of the rear columns of the fireplace. Three springs fed into the compound, one in the western side of the large courtyard which could be accessed by a secret entrance, and two at the end of north side of the wall, accessed via two tunnels in the wall. These and similar such structures found in other shelters are witnesses to the care which was taken here, as in other Mycenaean acropolises, to the basic problem of water access in a time of siege.</p><br>
<p>The Flatiron Building, originally the Fuller Building, is a triangular 22-story steel-framed landmarked building located at 175 Fifth Avenue in the borough of Manhattan, New York City, and is considered to be a groundbreaking skyscraper. Upon completion in 1902, it was one of the tallest buildings in the city at 20 floors high and one of only two skyscrapers north of 14th Street – the other being the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, one block east. The building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue, Broadway, and East 22nd Street, with 23rd Street grazing the triangle&#39;s northern  peak. As with numerous other wedge-shaped buildings, the name "Flatiron" derives from its resemblance to a cast-iron clothes iron.</p><br>
<p>The building, which has been called "one of the worlds most iconic skyscrapers and a quintessential symbol of New York City", anchors the south (downtown) end of Madison Square and the north (uptown) end of the Ladies Mile Historic District. The neighborhood around it is called the Flatiron District after its signature building, which has become an icon of New York City.</p><br>
<p>The Flatiron Building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989.</p><br>
<h2>The site</h2><br>
<p>The site on which the Flatiron Building would stand was bought in 1857 by Amos Eno, who shortly built the Fifth Avenue Hotel on a site diagonally across from it. Eno tore down the four-story St. Germaine Hotel on the south end of the lot, and replaced it with a seven-story apartment building, the Cumberland. On the remainder of the lot he built four three-story buildings for commercial use. This left four stories of the Cumberland&#39;s northern face exposed, which Eno rented out to advertisers, including The New York Times, who installed a sign made up of electric lights. Eno later put a canvas screen on the wall, and projected images onto it from a magic lantern on top of one of his smaller buildings, presenting advertisements and interesting pictures alternately. Both the Times and the New York Tribune began using the screen for news bulletins, and on election nights tens of thousands of people would gather in Madison Square, waiting for the latest results.</p><br>
<p>During his life Eno resisted suggestions to sell "Enos flatiron", as the site had become known, but after his death in 1899 his assets were liquidated, and the lot went up for sale. The New York State Assembly appropriated $3 million for the city to buy it, but this fell through when a newspaper reporter discovered that the plan was a graft scheme by Tammany Hall boss Richard Croker. Instead, the lot was bought at auction by William Eno, one of Amoss sons, for $690,000 – the elder Eno had bought the property for around $30,000 forty years earlier. Three weeks later, William re-sold the lot to Samuel and Mott Newhouse for $801,000. The Newhouses intended to put up a 12-story building with street-level retail shops and bachelor apartments above, but two years later they sold the lot for about $2 million to Cumberland Realty Company, an investment partnership created by Harry S. Black, CEO of the Fuller Company. The Fuller Company was the first true general contractor that dealt with all aspects of building construction except design, and they specialized in building skyscrapers.</p><br>
<p>Black intended to construct a new headquarters building on the site, despite the recent deterioration of the surrounding neighborhood, and he engaged Chicago architect Daniel Burnham to design it. The building, which would be Burnham&#39;s first in New York City, would also be the first skyscraper north of 14th Street. It was to be named the Fuller Building after George A. Fuller, founder of the Fuller Company and "father of the skyscraper", who had died two years earlier, but locals persisted on calling it "The Flatiron", a name which has since been made official.</p><br>
<h2>History of the building</h2><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>The Flatiron Building was designed by Chicagos Daniel Burnham as a vertical Renaissance palazzo with Beaux-Arts styling. Unlike New Yorks early skyscrapers, which took the form of towers arising from a lower, blockier mass, such as the contemporary Singer Building (built 1902–08), the Flatiron Building epitomizes the Chicago school conception: like a classical Greek column, its facade – limestone at the bottom changing to glazed terra-cotta from the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company in Tottenville, Staten Island as the floors rise – is divided into a base, shaft and capital.</p><br>
<p>Early sketches by Daniel Burnham show a design with an (unexecuted) clockface and a far more elaborate crown than in the actual building. Though Burnham maintained overall control of the design process, he was not directly connected with the details of the structure as built; credit should be shared with his designer Frederick P. Dinkelberg, a Pennsylvania-born architect in Burnhams office, who first worked for Burnham in putting together the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, for which Burnham was the chief of construction and master designer. Working drawings for the Flatiron Building, however, remain to be located, though renderings were published at the time of construction in American Architect and Architectural Record.</p><br>
<p>Building the Flatiron was made feasible by a change to New York City&#39;s building codes in 1892, which eliminated the requirement that masonry be used for fireproofing considerations. This opened the way for steel-skeleton construction. Since it employed a steel skeleton – with the steel coming from the American Bridge Company in Pennsylvania – it could be built to 22 stories (285 feet) relatively easily, which would have been difficult using other construction methods of that time. It was a technique familiar to the Fuller Company, a contracting firm with considerable expertise in building such tall structures. At the vertex, the triangular tower is only 6.5 feet (2 m) wide; viewed from above, this pointed end of the structure describes an acute angle of about 25 degrees.</p><br>
<p>The "cowcatcher" retail space at the front of the building was not part of Burnham or Dinkelbergs design, but was added at the insistence of Harry Black in order to maximize the use of the buildings lot and produce some retail income to help defray the cost of construction. Black pushed Burnham hard for plans for the addition, but Burnham resisted because of the aesthetic effect it would have on the design of the "prow" of the building, where it would interrupt the two-story high Classical columns which were echoed at the top of the building by two columns which supported the cornice. Black insisted, and Burnham was forced to accept the addition, despite the interruption of the designs symmetry. Another addition to the building not in the original plan was the penthouse, which was constructed after the rest of the building had been completed to be used as artists studios, and was quickly rented out to artists such as Louis Fancher, many of whom contributed to the pulp magazines which were produced in the offices below.</p><br>
<p>Once construction of the building began, it proceeded at a very fast pace. The steel was so meticulously pre-cut that the frame went up at the rate of a floor each week. By February 1902 the frame was complete, and by mid-May the building was half-covered by terra-cotta tiling. The building was completed in June 1902, after a year of construction.</p><br>
<p>New York&#39;s Flatiron Building was not the first building of its triangular ground-plan: aside from a possibly unique triangular Roman temple built on a similarly constricted site in the city of Verulamium, Britannia, the Maryland Inn in Annapolis (1782), the Granger Block in Syracuse, New York (1869), the Phelan Building in San Francisco (1881), the Gooderham Building of Toronto (1892), and the English-American Building in Atlanta (1897) predate it. All, however, are smaller than their New York counterpart.</p><br>
<p>The facade of the Flatiron Building was restored in 1991 by the firm of Hurley & Farinella.</p><br>
<h3>Initial response</h3><br>
<p>The Flatiron Building has become an icon of New York City, and the public response to it was enthusiastic, but the critical response to it at the time was not completely positive, and what praise it garnered was often for the cleverness of the engineering involved. Montgomery Schuyler, editor of Architectural Record, said that its "awkwardness entirely undisguised, and without even an attempt to disguise them, if they have not even been aggravated by the treatment.... The treatment of the tip is an additional and it seems wanton aggravation of the inherent awkwardness of the situation." He praised the surface of the building, and the detailing of the terra-cotta work, but criticized the practicality of the large number of windows in the building: " can, perhaps, find wall space within for one roll top desk without overlapping the windows, with light close in front of him and close behind him and close on one side of him. But suppose he needed a bookcase? Undoubtedly he has a highly eligible place from which to view processions. But for the transaction of business?"</p><br>
<p>When the building was first constructed, it received a lot of mixed feedback. The most known criticism received was known as “Burnham’s Folly”. This criticism, focused on the structure of the building, was made on the grounds that the “combination of triangular shape and height would cause the building to fall down.” Critics believed that the building created a dangerous wind-tunnel at the intersection of the two streets, and could possibly knock the building down. Although the wind is strong at the intersection, the buildings structure was meant to accommodate four times the typical wind loads in order to stabilize and retain the building’s iconic triangular shape.</p><br>
<p>The New York Tribune called the new building "A stingy piece of pie... the greatest inanimate troublemaker in New York", while the Municipal Art Society said that it was "Unfit to be in the Center of the City". The New York Times called it a "monstrosity".</p><br>
<p>But some saw the building differently. Futurist H. G. Wells wrote in his 1906 book The Future in America: A Search After Realities:</p><br>
<p>I found myself agape, admiring a sky-scraper the prow of the Flat-iron Building, to be particular, ploughing up through the traffic of Broadway and Fifth Avenue in the afternoon light.</p><br>
<p>The Flatiron was to attract the attention of numerous artists. It was the subject of one of Edward Steichens atmospheric photographs, taken on a wet wintry late afternoon in 1904, as well as a memorable image by Alfred Stieglitz taken the year before, to which Steichen was paying homage. (See below) Stieglitz reflected on the dynamic symbolism of the building, noting upon seeing it one day during a snowstorm that "... it appeared to be moving toward me like the bow of a monster ocean steamer – a picture of a new America still in the making," and remarked that what the Parthenon was to Athens, the Flatiron was to New York. When Stieglitz photograph was published in Camera Work, his friend Sadakichi Hartmann, a writer, painter and photographer, accompanied it with an essay on the building: "A curious creation, no doubt, but can it be called beautiful? Beauty is a very abstract idea... Why should the time not arrive when the majority without hesitation will pronounce the Flat-iron a thing of beauty?"</p><br>
<p>Besides Stieglitz and Steichen, photographers such as Alvin Langdon Coburn, Jessie Tarbox Beals, painters of the Ashcan School like John Sloan, Everett Shinn and Ernest Lawson, as well as Paul Cornoyer and Childe Hassam, lithographer Joseph Pennell, illustrator John Edward Jackson as well the French Cubist Albert Gleizes all took the Flatiron as the subject of their work. But decades after it was completed, others still could not come to terms with the building. Sculptor William Ordway Partridge remarked that it was "a disgrace to our city, an outrage to our sense of the artistic, and a menace to life".</p><br>
<h3>Original tenants and subsequent history</h3><br>
<p>The Fuller Company originally took the 19th floor of the building for its headquarters. In 1910, Harry Black moved the company to Francis Kimball&#39;s Trinity Building at 111 Broadway, where its parent company, USA Realty, had its offices. They moved them back to the Flatiron in 1916, and left permanently for the Fuller Building on 57th Street in 1929.</p><br>
<p>The Flatiron&#39;s other original tenants included publishers (magazine publishing pioneer Frank Munsey, American Architect and Building News and a vanity publisher), an insurance company (the Equitable Life Assurance Society), small businesses (a patent medicine company, Western Specialty Manufacturing Company and Whitehead & Hoag, who made celluloid novelties), music publishers (overflow from "Tin Pan Alley" up on 28th Street), a landscape architect, the Imperial Russian Consulate, the Bohemian Guides Society, the Roebling Construction Company, owned by the sons of Tammany Hall boss Richard Croker, and the crime syndicate, Murder, Inc.</p><br>
<p>The retail space in the buildings "cowcatcher" at the "prow" was leased by United Cigar Stores, and the buildings vast cellar, which extended into the vaults that went more than 20 ft under the surrounding streets, was occupied by the Flatiron Restaurant, which could seat 1,500 patrons and was open from breakfast through late supper for those taking in a performance at one of the many theatres which lined Broadway between 14th and 23rd Streets.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the building introduced a restaurant/club in the basement. It was among the first of its kind that allowed a black Jazz band to perform, thus introducing ragtime to affluent New Yorkers.</p><br>
<p>Even before construction on the Flatiron Building had begun, the area around Madison Square had started to deteriorate somewhat. After USA Realty constructed the New York Hippodrome, Madison Square Garden was no longer the venue of choice, and survived largely by staging boxing matches. The base of the Flatiron became a cruising spot for gay men, including some male prostitutes. Nonetheless, in 1911 the Flatiron Restaurant was bought by Louis Bustanoby, of the well-known Café des Beaux-Arts, and converted into a trendy 400-seat French restaurant, Taverne Louis. As an innovation to attract customers away from another restaurant opened by his brothers, Bustanoby hired a black musical group, Louis Mitchell and his Southern Symphony Quintette, to play dance tunes at the Taverne and the Café. Irving Berlin heard the group at the Taverne and suggested that they should try to get work in London, which they did. The Taverne&#39;s openness was also indicated by its welcoming a gay clientele, unusual for a restaurant of its type at the time. The Taverne was forced to close due to the effects of Prohibition on the restaurant business.</p><br>
<h3>Sale</h3><br>
<p>In October 1925, Harry S. Black, in need of cash for his USA Realty Company, sold the Flatiron Building to a syndicate set up by Lewis Rosenbaum, who also owned assorted other notable buildings around the USA The price was $2 million, which equaled Black&#39;s cost for buying the lot and erecting the Flatiron. The syndicate defaulted on its mortgage in 1933, and was taken over by the lender, Equitable Life Assurance Company after failing to sell it at auction. To attract tenants, Equitable did some modernization of the building, including replacing the original cast-iron birdcage elevators, which had cabs covered in rubber tiling and were originally built by Hecla Iron Works, but the hydraulic power system was not replaced. By the mid-1940s, the building was fully rented.</p><br>
<p>When the USA entered World War I, the Federal government instituted a "Wake Up America!" campaign, and the United Cigar store in the Flatiron&#39;s cowcatcher donated its space to the USA Navy for use as a recruiting center. Liberty Bonds were sold outside on sidewalk stands. By the mid-1940s, the cigar store had been replaced with a Walgreens drug store. During the 1940s, the building was dominated by clothing and toy companies.</p><br>
<p>Equitable sold the building in 1946 to the Flatiron Associates, an investor group headed by Harry Helmsley, whose firm, Dwight-Helmsley (which would later become Helmsley-Spear) managed the property. The new owners made some superficial changes, such as adding a dropped ceiling to the lobby, and, later, replacing the original mahogony-panelled entrances with revolving doors. Because the ownership structure was a tenancy-in-common, in which all partners have to agree on any action, as opposed to a straightforward partnership, it was difficult to get permission for necessary repairs and improvements to be done, and the building declined during the Helmsley/Flatiron Associates era. Helmsley-Spear stopped managing the building in 1997, when some of the investors sold their 52% of the building to Newmark Knight-Frank, a large real estate firm, which took over management of the property. Shortly afterwards, Helmsley&#39;s widow, Leona Helmsley, sold her share as well. Newmark made significant improvements to the property, including installing new electric elevators, replacing the antiquated hydraulic ones.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>During a 2005 restoration of the Flatiron Building a 15-story vertical advertising banner covered the facade of the building. The advertisement elicited protests from many New York City residents, prompting the New York City Department of Buildings to step in and force the building&#39;s owners to remove it.</p><br>
<p>In January 2009, Italian real estate investment firm Sorgente Group, based in Rome, bought a majority stake in the Flatiron Building, with plans to turn it into a world-class luxury hotel, although the conversion may have to wait ten years until the leases of the current tenants run out. The firm&#39;s Historic and Trophy Buildings Fund owns a number of prestigious buildings in France and Italy, and was involved in buying, and then selling, a stake in the Chrysler Building in Midtown New York. The value of the 22-story Flatiron Building, which is already zoned by the city to allow it to become a hotel, was estimated to be $190 million.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>As an icon of New York City, the Flatiron Building is a popular spot for tourist photographs, making it "possibly one of the most photographed buildings in the world", Macmillan, which is renovating some floors, published the following on their website:</p><br>
<p>The Flatirons interior is known for having its strangely-shaped offices with walls that cut through at an angle on their way to the skyscrapers famous point. These "point" offices are the most coveted and feature amazing northern views that look directly upon another famous Manhattan landmark, the Empire State Building.</p><br>
<p>There are oddities about the buildings interior. Bathrooms for males and females are placed on alternating floors, with the mens rooms on even floors and the women&#39;s rooms on odd ones. Additionally, to reach the top floor—the 21st, which was added in 1905, three years after the building was completed—a second elevator has to be taken from the 20th floor. On the 21st floor, the bottoms of the windows are chest-high.</p><br>
<h2>Influence</h2><br>
<h3>"23 skidoo"</h3><br>
<p>When construction on the building began, locals took an immediate interest, placing bets on how far the debris would spread when the wind knocked it down. This presumed susceptibility to damage had also given it the nickname "Burnham&#39;s Folly". But thanks to the steel bracing designed by engineer Corydon Purdy, which enabled the building to withstand four times the amount of windforce it could be expected to ever feel, there was no possibility that the wind would knock over the Flatiron Building. Nevertheless, the wind was a factor in the public attention the building received.</p><br>
<p>Due to the geography of the site, with Broadway on one side, Fifth Avenue on the other, and the open expanse of Madison Square and the park in front of it, the wind currents around the building could be treacherous. Wind from the north would split around the building, downdrafts from above and updrafts from the vaulted area under the street would combine to make the wind unpredictable. This is said to have given rise to the phrase "23 skidoo", from what policemen would shout at men who tried to get glimpses of women&#39;s dresses being blown up by the winds swirling around the building due to the strong downdrafts.</p><br>
<h3>In popular culture</h3><br>
<p>In the 1958 comedy film Bell, Book and Candle, James Stewart and Kim Novak were filmed on top of the Flatiron Building in a romantic clinch, and for Warren Beatty&#39;s 1980 film Reds, the base of the building was used for a scene with Diane Keaton.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Flatiron Building is frequently used on television commercials and documentaries as an easily recognizable symbol of the city, shown, for instance, in the opening credits of the Late Show with David Letterman or in scenes of New York City that are shown during scene transitions in the TV sitcoms Friends, Spin City, and Veronicas Closet. In the 1998 film Godzilla, the Flatiron Building is accidentally destroyed by the US Army while in pursuit of Godzilla, and it is depicted as the headquarters of the Daily Bugle, for which Peter Parker is a freelance photographer, in the Spider-Man movies. It is shown as the location of the Channel 6 News headquarters where April ONeil works in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles TV series. The Flatiron Building is also the home of the fictional company Damage Control in the Marvel Universe comics and for the CIA sponsored, super hero management team "The Boys" in the Dynamite Comics title of the same name.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the Whitney Museum of American Art installed a life-sized 3D-cutout replica of Edward Hopper&#39;s 1942 painting Nighthawks in the Flatiron Art Space located in the "prow" of the Flatiron building. Although Hopper said his picture was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village, the prow is reminiscent of the painting, and was selected to display the two-dimensional cutouts.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the Lego Architecture series produced a model of the Flatiron Building to add to their landmark series. The subsequent New York City set, introduced in 2015, also included the building.</p><br>
<p>The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot&#39; was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German-occupied France during the Second World War. The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942. St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs, such as the &#39;s sister ship , to return to home waters via either the English Channel or the GIUK gap, both of which were heavily defended by British units including the Royal Navy&#39;s Home Fleet, rather than having a haven available on the Atlantic coast in Nazi-occupied France.</p><br>
<p>The obsolete destroyer , accompanied by 18 smaller craft, crossed the English Channel to the Atlantic coast of France and was rammed into the Normandie dock gates. The ship had been packed with delayed-action explosives, well hidden within a steel and concrete case, that detonated later that day, putting the dock out of service for the remainder of the war and up to five years after.</p><br>
<p>A force of commandos landed to destroy machinery and other structures. Heavy German gunfire sank, set ablaze, or immobilised virtually all the small craft intended to transport the commandos back to England; the commandos had to fight their way out through the town to try to escape overland. Almost all were forced to surrender when their ammunition was expended and they were surrounded and captured by the Wehrmacht defending Saint-Nazaire.</p><br>
<p>After the raid, 228 men of the force of 611 returned to Britain; 169 were killed and 215 became prisoners of war. German casualties were over 360 dead, some killed after the raid when Campbeltown exploded. To recognise their bravery, 89 decorations were awarded to members of the raiding party, including five Victoria Crosses. After the war, St Nazaire was one of 38 battle honours awarded to the Commandos; the operation has since become known as The Greatest Raid of All within military circles.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire 400 km (250 miles) from the nearest British port. In 1942, it had a population of 50,000. The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port, formed by two piers jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean. This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire. These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de Penhoët, which can accommodate ships up to 10,000 tons. There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire located southwest of the Normandie dry dock. Built to house the ocean liner , this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932.</p><br>
<p>On 24 May 1941, the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships and and the British ships and . Hood was sunk and the damaged Prince of Wales was forced to retire. Bismarck, also damaged, ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire, which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with a dry dock able to accommodate a ship of her size. She was intercepted by the British and sunk en route.</p><br>
<p>Britain&#39;s Naval Intelligence Division first proposed a commando raid on the dock in late 1941. When the German battleship Tirpitz was declared operational in January 1942, the Royal Navy (RN) and Royal Air Force (RAF) were already drawing up plans to attack her. Planners from Combined Operations Headquarters were looking at potential scenarios if Tirpitz escaped the naval blockade and reached the Atlantic. They decided the only port able to accommodate her was St Nazaire, especially if, like the Bismarck, she was damaged en route and needed repairs. They came to the conclusion that if the dock at St Nazaire were unavailable the Germans were unlikely to risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>Combined Operations examined a number of options while planning the destruction of the dock. At this stage of the war the British government still tried to avoid civilian casualties. This ruled out a bombing attack by the RAF, which at the time did not possess the accuracy needed to destroy the dock without serious loss of civilian life.</p><br>
<p>The Special Operations Executive were approached to see if its agents could destroy the dock gates. They decided that the mission was beyond their capabilities because the weight of explosives required would have needed too many agents to carry them. The Royal Navy was also unable to mount an operation, as St Nazaire is 8 km (5 miles) up the Loire estuary. Any naval ships large enough to cause sufficient damage would be detected well before they were within range.</p><br>
<p>The planners then examined whether a commando force was feasible to accomplish the task. An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks, bypassing the heavily defended dredged channel. The approach was too shallow for an infantry landing ship, but the planners believed if a destroyer could be lightened it might have a draft shallow enough to enable it to get through.</p><br>
<h2>Plan</h2><br>
<p>The purpose of the raid was to destroy three objectives: the Normandie dock, the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire together with the water pumping machinery and other installations, and any U-boats or other shipping in the area. The initial Combined Operations plan required one specially lightened destroyer to carry out the raid. It would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates.</p><br>
<p>Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations, searchlights and gun emplacements. The destroyer would then be blown up. At the same time the RAF would carry out a number of diversionary air raids in the area. Most of them failed because of heavy clouds and fog and very few bombers.</p><br>
<p>When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it. The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question. They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer, the Ouragan, and a flotilla of small motor launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards.</p><br>
<p>Approval for the mission, codenamed Operation Chariot, was given on 3 March 1942. Using a French ship would involve using the Free French forces and increase the number of people aware of the raid. Consequently, it was decided the navy would have to provide a ship of their own. The RAF complained that the raid would draw heavily on their resources; the number of aircraft assigned by RAF Bomber Command was reduced time and time again before the day of the raid. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill further complicated matters when he ordered that bombing should only take place if targets were clearly identified.</p><br>
<p>Combined Operations Headquarters worked closely with several intelligence organisations to plan the raid. The Naval Intelligence Division compiled information from a variety of sources. A detailed plan of the town of St Nazaire was provided by the Secret Intelligence Service, and information on the coastal artillery nearby was sourced from the War Office&#39;s Military Intelligence branch. Intelligence about the dock itself came from pre-war technical journals.</p><br>
<p>The RN&#39;s Operational Intelligence Centre selected the route and timing for the raid based on intelligence about the location of minefields and German recognition signals sourced from Enigma decryptions and knowledge of Luftwaffe patrols compiled by the Air Ministry&#39;s Air Intelligence Branch.</p><br>
<h2>Composition of the raiding force</h2><br>
<p>The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the Commandos. The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid, under the overall command of the senior naval officer, Commander Robert Ryder. The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen Halden Beattie. Campbeltown was a First World War destroyer and had previously been the in the United States Navy. She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement.</p><br>
<p>Converting Campbeltown for the raid took ten days. She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary. This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments. The dockyard removed her three 4 inch (100 mm) guns, torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick–firing 12 pounder (3"). Eight 20 mm Oerlikons were installed on mountings raised above deck level. The bridge and wheelhouse were given extra armour-plate protection, and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the Commandos on the open deck.</p><br>
<p>Two of her four funnels were removed, and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer. The bow was packed with 4.5 tons of high explosives, which were set in concrete. It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to detonate after the raiders had left the harbour. To prevent the Germans towing her away, the crew would open the ship&#39;s seacocks before abandoning the ship. Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock, four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore. The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left.</p><br>
<p>Other naval units involved were two Hunt class destroyers, HMS and , which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid. A Motor Torpedo Boat (MTB 74), commanded by Sub-Lieutenant Michael Wynn, had two objectives: If the outer Normandie dock gates were open, she had to torpedo the inner dock gates. If the gates were closed she would instead torpedo the gates at the old entrance into the St Nazaire basin.</p><br>
<p>To assist in transporting the Commandos, 12 motor launches (ML) were assigned from the 20th and 28th Motor Launch flotillas. These boats were re-armed with two Oerlikon 20 mm guns mounted forward and aft to complement their twin Lewis guns. At the last minute another four MLs were assigned from the 7th Motor Launch flotilla (see Footnotes for flotilla details). These four boats were also armed with two torpedoes each. Instead of transporting the Commandos, these boats were to engage any German shipping found in the estuary. All the MLs had a 500-gallon auxiliary fuel tank fixed to the upper deck to increase their range. The S class submarine would leave before the rest of the convoy and be in position to act as a navigational beacon to guide the convoy into the Loire estuary.</p><br>
<p>The man selected to lead the Commando force was Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newman; his No. 2 Commando would provide the largest Commandos contingent, 173 men, for the raid.</p><br>
<p>The Commandos were divided into three groups: One and Two would travel in the MLs, while Three would be in Campbeltown. Under the command of Captain Hodgeson, Group One had the objectives of securing the Old Mole and eliminating the anti-aircraft gun positions around the southern quays. They were then to move into the old town and blow up the power station, bridges and locks for the new entrance into the basin from the Avant port. The capture of the mole was a major objective, as it was to be the embarkation point for the evacuation after the mission.</p><br>
<p>Group Two, under the command of Captain Burn, would land at the old entrance to the St Nazaire basin. Their objectives were to destroy the anti-aircraft positions in the area and the German headquarters, to blow up the locks and bridges at the old entrance into the basin and then to guard against a counter-attack from the submarine base. All three groups were subdivided into assault, demolition and protection teams. The assault teams would clear the way for the other two. The demolition teams carrying the explosive charges only had sidearms for self-defence; the protection teams, armed with Thompson submachine guns, were to defend them while they completed their tasks.</p><br>
<p>The Commandos were aided in their planning for the operation by Captain Bill Pritchard of the Royal Engineers, who had pre-war experience as an apprentice in the Great Western Railway dockyards and whose father was the dock master of Cardiff Docks. In 1940 while part of the British Expeditionary Force in France, his duties had included determining how to disable the French dockyards if they were captured. One of the dockyards he had studied was St Nazaire, and he had submitted a report detailing how to put the dock out of action.</p><br>
<h2>German forces</h2><br>
<p>The Germans had around 5,000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire. The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of Kapitän zur See Edo Dieckmann. The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various calibres from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns, all positioned to guard the coastal approaches. The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of Kapitän zur See Karl-Konrad Mecke.</p><br>
<p>The brigade was equipped with 43 anti-aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm. These guns had a dual role as both anti-aircraft and coastal defence weapons. Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other dockside installations of the St Nazaire submarine base.</p><br>
<p>The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored in the harbour. These companies and the harbour defence boats used to patrol the river were under the command of Harbour Commander Korvettenkapitän Kellerman. The 333rd Infantry Division was the German Army unit responsible for the defence of the coast between St Nazaire and Lorient. The division had no troops based in the town, but some were located in villages nearby and would be able to respond to any attack on the port.</p><br>
<p>The Kriegsmarine (German navy) had at least three surface ships in the Loire estuary: a destroyer, an armed trawler and a Sperrbrecher (minesweeper), the latter being the guard ship for the port.</p><br>
<h2>The raid</h2><br>
<h3>Outward journey</h3><br>
<p>The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth, Cornwall, at 14:00 on 26 March 1942.</p><br>
<p>The convoy next encountered two French fishing trawlers. Both crews were taken off and the ships sunk for fear they might report the composition and location of the convoy.</p><br>
<p>The convoy reached a position 65 nmi off St Nazaire at 21:00 and changed course toward the estuary, leaving Atherstone and Tynedale as a sea patrol. The convoy adopted a new formation with the MGB and two torpedo MLs in the lead, followed by Campbeltown. The rest of the MLs formed two columns on either side and astern of the destroyer, with the MTB bringing up the rear.</p><br>
<p>At 23:30 on 27 March, five RAF squadrons (comprising 35 Whitleys and 27 Wellingtons) started their bombing runs. The bombers had to stay above 6,000 ft and were supposed to remain over the port for 60 minutes to divert attention toward themselves and away from the sea. They had orders to only bomb clearly identified military targets and to drop only one bomb at a time. As it turned out, poor weather over the port (10/10ths cloud) meant that only four aircraft bombed targets in St Nazaire. Six aircraft managed to bomb other nearby targets.</p><br>
<p>The unusual behaviour of the bombers concerned Kapitän zur See Mecke. At 00:00 on 28 March, he issued a warning that there might be a parachute landing in progress. At 01:00 on 28 March, he followed up by ordering all guns to cease firing and searchlights to be extinguished in case the bombers were using them to locate the port. Everyone was placed on a heightened state of alert. The harbour defence companies and ships&#39; crews were ordered out of the air raid shelters. During all this a lookout reported seeing some activity out at sea, so Mecke began suspecting some type of landing and ordered extra attention to be paid to the approaches to the harbour.</p><br>
<h3>Ramming the dry dock</h3><br>
<p>At 00:30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the shoals at the mouth of the Loire estuary, with Campbeltown scraping the bottom twice. Each time she was able to pull free, and the group proceeded on up toward the harbour in darkness. They had got to within about eight minutes passage from the dock gates when at 01:22 the entire convoy was illuminated by the combined searchlights of both banks of the estuary. A naval signal light demanded their identification.</p><br>
<p>The MGB-314 replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the Vågsøy raid. A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both Campbeltown and MGB-314 replied: "Ship being fired upon by friendly forces". The deception gave them a little more time before every German gun in the bay opened fire. At 01:28, with the convoy 1 mi from the dock gates, Beattie ordered the German flag lowered and the White Ensign raised. The intensity of the German fire seemed to increase. The guard ship opened fire and was quickly silenced when the ships in the convoy responded, shooting into her as they passed.</p><br>
<p>By now all the ships in the convoy were within range to engage targets ashore and were firing at the gun emplacements and searchlights. Campbeltown was hit a number of times and increased her speed to 19 kn. The helmsman on her bridge was killed; his replacement was wounded and replaced as well. Blinded by the searchlights, Beattie knew they were close to their objective. Still under heavy fire, the MGB turned into the estuary as Campbeltown cleared the end of the Old Mole, cut through anti-torpedo netting strung across the entrance and rammed the dock gates, striking home at 01:34, three minutes later than scheduled. The force of the impact drove the ship 33 ft onto the gates.</p><br>
<h3>Disembarkation from ''Campbeltown'' and the MLs</h3><br>
<p>The Commandos on Campbeltown now disembarked: two assault teams, five demolition teams with their protectors and a mortar group. Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock. The kilt-wearing Captain Donald Roy – &#39;The Laird&#39; – and his 14-man assault troop were tasked with knocking out two pump-house roof-top gun emplacements high above the quayside and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area. Roy and Sgt Don Randall used scaling ladders and grenades to accomplish the former, and a head-on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled Capt. Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran Purdon and their demolition teams to exit the area.</p><br>
<p>They lost 4 men in this action. The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives but almost half its men were killed. The other two Commando groups were not as successful. The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed on their approach. ML 457 was the only boat to land its Commandos on the Old Mole and only ML 177 had managed to reach the gates at the old entrance to the basin. That team succeeded in planting charges on two tugboats moored in the basin.</p><br>
<p>There were only two other MLs in the vicinity: ML 160 had continued past the dock and was engaging targets upriver, ML 269 appeared to be out of control and was running in circles.</p><br>
<p>Lt Col Newman aboard the MGB need not have landed, but he was one of the first ashore. One of his first actions was to direct mortar fire onto a gun position on top of the submarine pens that was causing heavy casualties among the Commandos. He next directed machine-gun fire onto an armed trawler, which was forced to withdraw upriver. Newman organised a defence that succeeded in keeping the increasing numbers of German reinforcements at bay until the demolition parties had completed their tasks.</p><br>
<p>Some 100 Commandos were still ashore when Newman realised that evacuation by sea was no longer an option. He gathered the survivors and issued three orders:</p><br>
<p>*To do our best to get back to England;</p><br>
<p>*Not to surrender until all our ammunition is exhausted;</p><br>
<p>*Not to surrender at all if we can help it.</p><br>
<p>Newman and Copland led the charge from the old town across a bridge raked by machine gun fire and advanced into the new town. The Commandos attempted to get through the narrow streets of the town and into the surrounding countryside, but were eventually surrounded. When their ammunition was expended their only option was to surrender. Not all the Commandos were captured; five men reached neutral Spain, from where they eventually returned to England.</p><br>
<h3>Small ships</h3><br>
<p>Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning. The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire; her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole. Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their Commandos. ML 443, the leading boat in the port column, got to within 10 ft of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire. The crew were rescued by ML 160, one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour. The commanders of MLs 160 and 443, Lieutenants T Boyd and T D L Platt, were awarded the Distinguished Service Order for their bravery. The rest of the port column had been destroyed or disabled before reaching the mole. MLs 192 and 262 were set on fire; there were only six survivors. ML 268 was blown up; one man survived.</p><br>
<p>Thomas O&#39;Leary, the wireless operator for ML 446, recalled the ferocity of incoming German fire, stating"One commando was remarking how pretty the tracer fire, red and green, was. A moment later one blew the back of his head out. I was down below with my tin hat because by now the bullets were going through (the boat) and out the other side. If I wanted to get about I had to crawl on my hands and knees and I was lucky nothing came through at my level. We couldn&#39;t get in (to the objective) and all over a sudden the wounded started coming down. By then all our guns had jammed and most of the other ships were on fire."ML 177, the launch that had successfully taken off some of the crew from Campbeltown, was sunk on her way out of the estuary. ML 269, another torpedo-armed boat, had the unenviable task of moving up and down the river at high speed to draw German fire away from the landings. Soon after passing Campbeltown it was hit and its steering damaged. It took ten minutes to repair the steering. They turned and started in the other direction, opening fire on an armed trawler in passing. Return fire from the trawler set their engine on fire.</p><br>
<p>ML 306 also came under heavy fire when it arrived near the port. Sergeant Thomas Durrant of No. 1 Commando, manning the aft Lewis gun, engaged gun and searchlight positions on the run in. He was wounded but refused to leave the gun for treatment. The ML reached the open sea but was attacked at short range by the German torpedo boat Jaguar. Durrant returned fire, aiming for the torpedo boat&#39;s bridge. He was wounded again but remained at his gun even after the German commander asked for their surrender. Firing drum after drum of ammunition, he refused to give up until after the ML had been boarded. Durrant died of his wounds and, after the recommendation of the Jaguars commander, was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross.</p><br>
<p>After the Commando headquarters group had landed, Commander Ryder went to check for himself that Campbeltown was firmly stuck in the dock. Some of her surviving crewmen were being taken on board the MGB. Ryder returned to the boat and ordered the MTB to carry out its alternative task and torpedo the lock gates at the old entrance to the basin. After a successful torpedo attack, Ryder ordered the MTB to leave. On their way out of the estuary they stopped to collect survivors from a sinking ML and were hit and set on fire. Back at the docks the MGB had positioned itself in mid-river to engage enemy gun emplacements. The forward 2 pounder was manned by Able Seaman William Alfred Savage. Commander Ryder reported that "The rate of supporting fire had evidently been felt, and the Commandos in the area of the Tirpitz dock had undoubtedly overcome the resistance in that area. There was an appreciable slackening in the enemy&#39;s fire."</p><br>
<p>Ryder could see no ships other than seven or eight burning MLs. He then realised that the landing places at the Old Mole and the entrance to the basin had both been recaptured by the Germans. There was nothing more they could do for the Commandos, so they headed out to sea. On their way they were continuously illuminated by German searchlights and were hit at least six times by the German guns. Passing ML 270, they ordered her to follow and made smoke to hide both boats.</p><br>
<p>When they reached the open sea the smaller calibre guns were out of range and stopped firing but the heavier artillery continued to engage them. The boats were about 4 mi off-shore when the last German salvo straddled them and killed Savage, who was still at his gun. He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his exploits. His citation recognised both Savage and the bravery of "the many unnamed crews of the Motor Gun Boat, Motor Torpedo Boat and Motor Launches who continued to carry out their duties in exposed positions, in the face of close range enemy fire."</p><br>
<h3>Return journey</h3><br>
<p>At 06:30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had evaded the previous day were sighted by HMS Atherstone and Tynedale. The two destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of 7 mi. After ten minutes the German boats turned away, making smoke. The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to the Atherstone. Not expecting any more boats to arrive, they headed for home. Just after 09:00 the Hunt-class escort destroyers and arrived, sent by Commander-in-Chief Plymouth. Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 floatplane of the Luftwaffe.</p><br>
<p>The next German aircraft on the scene, a Junkers 88, was engaged by a RAF Bristol Beaufighter which had appeared in the area earlier. Both machines crashed into the sea. Other German planes arrived but were driven off by Beaufighters and Hudsons from Coastal Command. The Atlantic weather conditions deteriorated. Amid concerns about the growing German threat and the realisation that the damaged small ships would not be able to keep up, Commander Sayer ordered the crews off the smaller boats and had them sunk.</p><br>
<p>Three of the small vessels managed to return to England: MLs 160, 307 and 443. They had reached the rendezvous and waited until 10:00 for the destroyers to appear. Having already been attacked once, they moved further out into the Atlantic to try and avoid the German Air Force, but a Junkers 88 appeared overhead at 07:30 and approached them at low level for a closer look. The ships opened fire and hit the Junkers in the cockpit. The plane went into the sea. The next aircraft to appear was a Blohm & Voss seaplane which attempted to bomb the ships, but left after being damaged by machine-gun fire. The surviving MLs eventually reached England unaided the following day.</p><br>
<h3>''Campbeltown'' explodes</h3><br>
<p>The explosive charges in HMS Campbeltown detonated at noon on 28 March 1942, and the dry dock was destroyed. Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk, or swept to the far end of the dock, but not sunk.</p><br>
<p>A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of Campbeltown were killed. In total, the explosion killed about 360 men. The wreck of Campbeltown could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent to photograph the port.</p><br>
<p>According to Captain Robert Montgomery (Royal Engineers, attached to No.2 Commando), Campbeltown was meant to have detonated at 4:30am, the delay caused, he believes, by some of the acid in the pencil detonators being distilled away. As the morning progressed, more and more captured comrades joined him in the German HQ.</p><br>
<p>The day after the explosion, Organisation Todt workers were assigned to clean up the debris and wreckage. On 30 March at 16:30 the torpedoes from MTB 74, which were on a delayed fuse setting, exploded at the old entrance into the basin. This raised alarms among the Germans. The Organisation Todt workers ran away from the dock area. German guards, mistaking their khaki uniforms for British uniforms, opened fire, killing some of them. The Germans also thought that some Commandos were still hiding in the town, and made a street by street search, during which some townspeople were also killed.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war. The St Nazaire raid had been a success, but at a cost&mdash;of the 622 men of the Royal Navy and Commandos who took part in the raid, only 228 men returned to England.</p><br>
<p>Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens, and took a ship to England from Gibraltar. 169 men were killed (105 RN and 64 Commandos) and another 215 became prisoners of war (106 RN and 109 Commandos). They were first taken to La Baule and then sent to Stalag 133 at Rennes. The fallen British raiders were buried at the La Baule-Escoublac cemetery with military honours. The cemetery is 13 kilometres west of St Nazaire.</p><br>
<p>To recognise their achievement, 89 decorations were awarded for the raid. This total includes the five Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie, Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder, and posthumous awards to Sergeant Durrant and Able Seaman Savage. Four Distinguished Service Orders were awarded to Major William Copland, Captain Donald Roy, Lieutenant T Boyd and Lieutenant T D L Platt. Other decorations awarded were four Conspicuous Gallantry Medals, five Distinguished Conduct Medals, 17 Distinguished Service Crosses, 11 Military Crosses, 24 Distinguished Service Medals and 15 Military Medals. Four men were awarded the Croix de guerre by France, and another 51 were mentioned in despatches.</p><br>
<p>Adolf Hitler was furious that the British had been able to sail a flotilla of ships up the Loire unhindered. His immediate reaction was to dismiss Generaloberst Carl Hilpert, chief-of-staff to the Commander in Chief West. The raid refocused German attention on the Atlantic Wall, and special attention was given to ports to prevent any repeat of the raid. By June 1942, the Germans began using concrete to fortify gun emplacements and bunkers in quantities previously only used in U-boat pens. Hitler laid out new plans in a meeting with Armaments Minister Albert Speer in August 1942, calling for the construction of 15,000 bunkers by May 1943 to defend the Atlantic coast from Norway to Spain.</p><br>
<p>The battleship Tirpitz never entered the Atlantic. She remained in Norwegian fjords to threaten Allied shipping until she was destroyed by the RAF on 12 November 1944.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the Commandos after the war. The raid has since been called The Greatest Raid of All. The survivors formed their own association, the St Nazaire Society, which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription:</p><br>
<p>A new , a Type 22 Frigate, was launched on 7 October 1987. She carried the ship&#39;s bell from the first Campbeltown which was rescued during the raid and had been presented to the town of Campbelltown, Pennsylvania at the end of the Second World War. In 1988 the people of Campbelltown voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service.</p><br>
<p>The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS Campbeltown was decommissioned.</p><br>
<p>On 4 September 2002, a tree and seat at the National Memorial Arboretum were dedicated to the men of the raid. The seat bears the inscription:In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942</p><br>
<p>The Sulu Sea  is a body of water in the southwestern area of the Philippines, separated from the South China Sea in the northwest by Palawan and from the Celebes Sea in the southeast by the Sulu Archipelago. Borneo is found to the southwest and Visayas to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>Sulu Sea contains a number of islands. The Cuyo Islands and Cagayan Sulu are part of the province of Palawan whereas Mapun and the Turtle Islands are part of the province of Tawi-Tawi. Sulu Sea is also where the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park, one of the World Heritage Sites is located.</p><br>
<p>The Panay Gulf is an extension of the Sulu Sea. Straits out of the Sulu Sea include the Iloilo Strait, the Guimaras Strait, and the Basilan Strait.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Sulu Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows:</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Star Trek character Hikaru Sulu is named after the Sulu Sea. According to Sulu actor George Takei, " Roddenberry&#39;s vision for Sulu was to represent all of Asia, being named for the Sulu Sea instead of using a specific country-specific name".</p><br>
<p>In the radio serial Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy, the Sulu Sea was the locale for the episodes of "The Luminous Dragon Eye Ring".</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota River is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles  long, in the USA state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of nearly 17,000 square miles, 14,751 square miles in Minnesota and about 2,000 square miles in South Dakota and Iowa.</p><br>
<p>It rises in southwestern Minnesota, in Big Stone Lake on the Minnesota–South Dakota border just south of the Laurentian Divide at the Traverse Gap portage. It flows southeast to Mankato, then turns northeast. It joins the Mississippi south of the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, near the historic Fort Snelling. The valley is one of several distinct regions of Minnesota. The name Minnesota comes from the Dakota language phrase, "Mnisota Makoce" which is translated to "land where the waters reflect the sky", as a reference to the many lakes in Minnesota rather than the cloudiness of the actual river. For over a century prior to the organization of the Minnesota Territory in 1849, the name St. Pierre (St. Peter) had been generally applied to the river by French and English explorers and writers. Minnesota River is shown on the 1757 edition of Mitchell Map as "Ouadebameniſsouté or R. St. Peter". On June 19, 1852, acting upon a request from the Minnesota territorial legislature, the United States Congress decreed the aboriginal name for the river, Minnesota, to be the river’s official name and ordered all agencies of the federal government to use that name when referencing it.</p><br>
<p>The valley that the Minnesota River flows in is up to five miles (8 km) wide and 250 feet (80 m) deep. It was carved into the landscape by the massive glacial River Warren between 11,700 and 9,400 years ago at the end of the last ice age in North America. Pierre-Charles Le Sueur was the first European to visit the river. The Minnesota Territory, and later the state, were named for the river.</p><br>
<h2>Commercial significance</h2><br>
<p>The river valley is notable as the origin and center of the canning industry in Minnesota. In 1903 Carson Nesbit Cosgrove, an entrepreneur in Le Sueur presided at the organizational meeting of the Minnesota Valley Canning Company (later renamed Green Giant). By 1930, the Minnesota River valley had emerged as one of the countrys largest producers of sweet corn. Green Giant had five canneries in Minnesota in addition to the original facility in Le Sueur. Cosgroves son, Edward, and grandson, Robert also served as heads of the company over the ensuing decades before the company was acquired by General Mills. Several docks for barges exist along the river. Farm grains, including corn, are transported to the ports of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, and then shipped down the Mississippi River.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<h2>Cities and towns</h2><br>
<p>Folegandros  is a small Greek island in the Aegean Sea which, together with Sikinos, Ios, Anafi and Santorini, forms the southern part of the Cyclades. Its surface area is 32.216 km&sup2; and it has 765 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>It has three small villages, Chora, Karavostasis, and Ano Meria, which are connected by a paved road. Folegandros is part of the Thira regional unit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Little is known about the ancient history of Folegandros. Its inhabitants were Dorians. Later it came under Athenian rule. The island was conquered in 1207 by the Venetian Marco Sanudo and remained under the rule of Venice until 1566, when it was taken by the Ottoman Turks. The Greeks reclaimed it in the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Folegandros&#39; landscape is varied, and includes tall cliffs and a large cave. The "capital" of the island, Chora, is built on the edge of a 200-metre high cliff. The port of Folegandros is the small village of Karavostasis. The Ano Meria village contains a small but interesting Ecological and Folklore Museum. Among the notable beaches on Folegandros is Katergo, accessible only by foot or by boat from Karavostasis. Katergo beach is used by naturists.</p><br>
<p>The Haskell Free Library and Opera House  is a neoclassical building that straddles the international border in Rock Island , Quebec and Derby Line, Vermont. The Opera House opened on June 7, 1904, and was deliberately built on the border between Canada and the United States. It was declared a heritage building by both countries in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>The library has two different addresses: 93 Caswell Avenue, Derby Line, Vermont, and 1 rue Church (Church Street), Stanstead, Quebec.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The library collection and the opera stage are located in Stanstead, but the main entrance and most opera seats are located in Derby Line. Because of this, the Haskell is sometimes called "the only library in the USA with no books" and "the only opera house in the USA with no stage". There is no entrance from Canada, however there is an emergency exit on the Canadian side of the building. All patrons and visitors must use the US entrance to access the building. Patrons from Canada are permitted to enter the US door without needing to report to customs, providing they return to Canada immediately upon leaving the building.</p><br>
<p>A thick black line runs beneath the seats of the opera house and diagonally across the center (or centre) of the library&#39;s reading room to mark the Canada–United States border. The stage and half of the seats are in Canada, the remainder of the opera hall is in the US. The building has different postal codes (93 Caswell Avenue, 05830 and 1, rue Church (Church Street), J0B 3E2) and different telephone area codes (+1-802-873-3022 and +1-819-876-2471) in its two respective countries.</p><br>
<p>The library has a collection of more than 20,000 books in French and English, and is open to the public 38 hours a week.</p><br>
<p>The building is recognized as a historic site in both countries. In the United States, it has been registered in the National Register of Historic Places since 1976. In Canada, it was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1985 and has been a provincial heritage site since 1977.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Haskell Free Library and Opera House was a gift from Mrs. Martha Stewart Haskell and her son Col. Horace “Stewart” Haskell. It was built in memory of her parents Catherine and Horace Stewart and her husband Carlos Freeman Haskell. The Haskells wanted Canadians and Americans to have equal access to the Library and Opera House and so they chose to build on the border. Construction began in 1901 and the Opera House opened in 1904 and the Library in 1905.</p><br>
<p>The opera house on the second floor was rumored to be modeled after the old Boston Opera House in a somewhat scaled down fashion (it seats four hundred), but the Boston Opera house was built afterwards. A painted scene of Venice on the drop curtain and 4 other scenes by Erwin Lamoss (1901) and plaster scrollwork complete with plump cherubs built in Boston ornament the opera hall and balcony in this historic building, which was constructed with 2 ft walls built of granite from Stanstead.</p><br>
<p>The Haskell family later donated the building to the towns of Derby Line and Rock Island in Mr. Haskell&#39;s memory; it is run by a private international board of four American and three Canadian directors.</p><br>
<h2>Organization</h2><br>
<p>French and English books are co-filed. Because of different language conventions in the direction of printing titles on spines—American English books have titles written top-to-bottom, and French books bottom-to-top—the language of a book can be immediately determined.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pelée  is an active volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island and French overseas department in the Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean. Its volcanic cone is composed of layers of volcanic ash and hardened lava. The volcano is currently in a quiescent state, which means it is not active, but is registering seismic activity.</p><br>
<p>The stratovolcano is famous for its eruption in 1902 and the destruction that resulted, dubbed the worst volcanic disaster of the 20th century. The eruption killed about 30,000 people. Most deaths were caused by pyroclastic flows which completely destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre (at that time, the largest city on the island), within minutes of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The main eruption, on 8 May 1902, left only two survivors in the direct path of the flow: Louis-Auguste Cyparis survived because he was in a poorly ventilated, dungeon-like jail cell; Léon Compère-Léandre, living on the edge of the city, escaped with severe burns. Havivra Da Ifrile, a young girl, reportedly escaped with injuries during the eruption by taking a small boat to a cave down shore, and was later found adrift 3 km from the island, unconscious. The event marked the only major volcanic disaster in the history of France and its overseas territories.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical setting and description</h2><br>
<p>Mount Pelée is the result of a typical subduction zone. The subduction formed the Lesser Antilles island arc, a curved chain of volcanoes approximately 850 km in length, between Puerto Rico and Venezuela, where the Caribbean Plate meets Atlantic oceanic crust belonging to the South American Plate. Other volcanoes in the island arc are also known for their volcanic activity, including Saint Vincents La Soufrière, Guadeloupes La Grande Soufriere volcano, Montserrats Soufrière Hills, and the submarine volcano Kick em Jenny.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Volcanologists have identified three different phases in the evolution of Mount Pelée volcano: initial, intermediate, and modern. In an initial phase, called the "Paléo-Pelée" stage, Mount Pelee was a common stratovolcano. The cone of Paléo-Pelée was composed of many layers of lava flows and fragmented volcanic debris. Remains of the Paléo-Pelée cone are still visible at the northern view at the volcano today.</p><br>
<p>A second stage, now called the intermediate phase, started around 100,000 years ago, after a long period of quiescence. This stage is grouped by the formation of the Morne Macouba lava dome, then later on, the Morne Macouba caldera. During the intermediate phase, there were several eruptions which produced pyroclastic flows like those that destroyed Saint-Pierre in the 1902 eruption. Around 25,000 years ago, a large southwest sector collapse occurred, forming a landslide. This event is similar to the eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 1980.</p><br>
<p>The modern stage of the evolution of Mount Pelée has created most of the current cone, with deposits of pumice and the results of past pyroclastic flows. More than 30 eruptions have been identified during the last 5,000 years of the volcano&#39;s activity.</p><br>
<p>3,000 years ago, following a large pumice eruption, the Étang Sec (French for Dry Pond) caldera was then formed. The 1902 eruption took place within the Étang Sec crater. This eruption formed many pyroclastic flows and produced a dome which filled the caldera.</p><br>
<p>The following eruption in 1929 formed a second dome in the Étang Sec caldera, and produced pyroclastic flows emptying into the Blanche River valley. This last eruption is mainly responsible for the current state of Mount Pelée.</p><br>
<h2>1902 eruption</h2><br>
<p>Before the tragic 1902 eruption, as early as the summer of 1900, signs of increased fumarole activity were present in the Étang Sec (Dry Pond) crater near the summit. Relatively minor phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were evidence that the volcano was active and potentially dangerous. Local natives, the Carib people, knew it as "fire mountain" from previous eruptions in ancient times.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pelée began its eruptions on 23 April 1902. In early April, excursionists noted the appearance of sulfurous vapors emitting from fumaroles near the mountaintop. This was not regarded as important, as fumaroles had appeared and disappeared in the past.</p><br>
<p>On 23 April the mountain caused a light rain of cinders on its southern and western side, together with sharp underground shocks.</p><br>
<p>On 25 April the mountain emitted a large cloud containing rocks and ashes from its top, where the Étang Sec caldera was located. The ejected material did not cause a significant amount of damage.</p><br>
<p>On 26 April the area was dusted by volcanic ash from an eruption; the public authorities still did not see a reason to worry.</p><br>
<p>On 27 April several excursionists climbed the mountaintop to find Étang Sec filled with water, forming a lake 180 m across. There was a 15 m high cone of volcanic debris built up on one side, feeding the lake with a steady stream of boiling water. Sounds resembling a cauldron with boiling water were heard from deep underground. The strong smell of sulfur was all over the city, 6.4 km away from the volcano, causing discomfort to people and horses.</p><br>
<p>On 30 April Rivière des Pères and the river Roxelane swelled, carrying boulders and trees from the mountaintop. The villages of Prêcheur and Sainte-Philomène received a steady stream of ash.</p><br>
<p>At 11:30 p.m. on 2 May the mountain produced loud explosions, earthquakes and a massive pillar of dense black smoke. Ashes and fine-grained pumice covered the entire northern half of the island. The detonation continued in 5–6 hour intervals. This led the local newspaper Les Colonies to indefinitely postpone the proposed picnic on the mountain, originally planned for May 4. Farm animals started dying from hunger and thirst, as their sources of water and food were contaminated with ash.</p><br>
<p>On Saturday, 3 May the wind blew the ash cloud northwards, alleviating the situation in Saint-Pierre. The next day the ash fall intensified, and the communication between Saint-Pierre and the Prêcheur district was severed. The ash cloud was so dense that the coastal boats feared to navigate through it. Many citizens decided to flee the city, filling the steamer lines to capacity. The area was covered with a layer of fine, flour-like white ash.</p><br>
<p>On Monday, 5 May the mountain apparently calmed down somewhat; however, at about 1 PM, the sea suddenly receded about 100 m and then rushed back, flooding parts of the city, and a large cloud of smoke appeared westwards of the mountain. One wall of the Étang Sec crater collapsed and propelled a mass of boiling water and mud, or lahar, into Blanche River, flooded the Guérin sugar works and buried about 150 victims under 60 m to 90 m of mud. Refugees from other areas rushed into Saint-Pierre. That night, the atmospheric disturbances disabled the electric grid, sank the city into darkness and added to the confusion.</p><br>
<p>The next day, at about 02:00, loud sounds were heard from within the depth of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>On Wednesday, 7 May at around 04:00, the mountain stepped up its activity; the clouds of ash caused numerous bolts of volcanic lightning around the mountaintop, and both the craters glowed reddish orange into the night. Through the day, people were leaving the city, but more people from the countryside were attempting to find refuge in the city, increasing its population by several thousand. The newspapers still claimed the city was safe. News of the volcano Soufrière erupting on the nearby Saint Vincent island reassured the people that the internal pressures in the mountain were being relieved. Not everyone was reassured. Captain Marina Leboffe, of the barque Orsolina, left the harbor with only half of the sugar cargo loaded, despite shippers protests, clearance refused by the port authorities, and threats of being arrested, as were many other civilians refused permission to exit town. Governor Louis Mouttet and his wife stayed in the city. By the evening, the mountains tremors seemed to calm down again.</p><br>
<h3>The main eruption</h3><br>
<p>On 8 May 1902, Ascension Day, a volcanic eruption destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, about 6.4 km south of the summit.</p><br>
<p>In the morning, people were observing the fireworks the mountain was displaying. The night shift telegraph operator was sending the reports of the volcano&#39;s activity to the operator at Fort-de-France, claiming no significant new developments; his last transmission at 07:52 was "Allez", handing over the line to the remote operator. In the next second, the telegraph line went dead. A cable repair ship had the city in direct view; the upper mountainside ripped open and a dense black cloud shot out horizontally. A second black cloud rolled upwards, forming a gigantic mushroom cloud and darkening the sky in a 50 mi radius. The initial speed of both clouds was later calculated to be over 670 km per hour.</p><br>
<p>The horizontal pyroclastic surge hugged the ground and sped down towards the city of Saint-Pierre, appeared black and heavy, glowing hot from the inside. It consisted of superheated steam and volcanic gases and dust, with temperatures exceeding 1,075 &deg;C. In under a minute it reached and covered the entire city, instantly igniting everything flammable with which it came in contact.</p><br>
<p>A rush of wind followed, this time towards the mountain. Then came a half-hour downpour of muddy rain mixed with ashes. For the next several hours, all communication with the city was severed. Nobody knew what was happening, nor who had authority over the island, as the governor was unreachable and his status unknown.</p><br>
<p>There are unnamed eyewitnesses to the eruption, probably survivors on the boats at the time of the eruption. One eyewitness said "the mountain was blown to pieces, there was no warning," while another said "it was like a giant oil refinery." One person even went as far to say that "the town vanished before our eyes."</p><br>
<p>The area devastated by the pyroclastic cloud covered about 21 km&sup2, with the city of Saint-Pierre taking the brunt of the damage.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the eruption, Saint-Pierre had a population of about 28,000, which had swollen with refugees from the minor explosions and mud flows first emitted by the volcano. Legend has previously reported that out of the 30,000 in the city, there were only two survivors: Louis-Auguste Cyparis, a felon held in an underground cell in the town&#39;s jail for wounding a friend with a cutlass, and Léon Compère-Léandre, a man who lived at the edge of the city. In reality, there were a number of survivors who made their way out of the fringes of the blast zone. Many of these survivors were horribly burned, and some died later from their injuries. A number made their way to Le Carbet, just south of St. Pierre behind a ridge that protected that town from the worst of the pyroclastic flow; survivors were rescued on the beach there by Martinique officials.</p><br>
<p>Compère-Léandre stated the following when asked about his survival:</p><br>
<p>I felt a terrible wind blowing, the earth began to tremble, and the sky suddenly became dark. I turned to go into the house, with great difficulty climbed the three or four steps that separated me from my room, and felt my arms and legs burning, also my body. I dropped upon a table. At this moment four others sought refuge in my room, crying and writhing with pain, although their garments showed no sign of having been touched by flame. At the end of 10 minutes one of these, the young Delavaud girl, aged about 10 years, fell dead; the others left. I got up and went to another room, where I found the father Delavaud, still clothed and lying on the bed, dead. He was purple and inflated, but the clothing was intact. Crazed and almost overcome, I threw myself on a bed, inert and awaiting death. My senses returned to me in perhaps an hour, when I beheld the roof burning. With sufficient strength left, my legs bleeding and covered with burns, I ran to Fonds-Saint-Denis, six kilometers from Saint-Pierre.</p><br>
<p>One woman, a housemaid, also survived the pyroclastic flow but perished soon after. She said that the only thing she remembered from the event was sudden heat. She died very shortly after being discovered. A third reported survivor was Havivra Da Ifrile, a 10-year-old girl who had rowed to shelter in a cave. Included among the victims were the passengers and crews of several ships docked at Saint-Pierre.</p><br>
<p>One passenger steamship, the Roraima, which went missing on 26 April, was believed to have been engulfed by ash from a preliminary explosion. However, it reached the port of Saint-Pierre at 06:30, shortly before the eruption, and was set aflame by the pyroclastic flow. It later sank; its wreck is still present offshore of Saint-Pierre. Twenty-eight of her crew, and all the passengers except two (a little girl and her creole nurse), were killed by the cloud.</p><br>
<h3>Relief</h3><br>
<p>At about 12:00 the acting governor of Martinique sent the warship Suchet to investigate what had happened and the warship arrived off the burning town at about 12.30. The fierce heat beat back landing parties until nearly 15:00, when the captain came ashore on the Place Bertin, the tree-shaded square with cafés near the center of town. Not a tree was standing; the denuded trunks, scorched and bare, lay prone, torn out by the roots. The ground was littered with dead. Fire and a suffocating stench prevented any deeper exploration of the burning ruins.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, a number of survivors had been plucked from the sea by small boats; they were sailors who had been blown into the water by the impact of the blast, and who had clung to wreckage for hours. All were badly burned. In the village of Carbet, shielded from the fiery cloud by a high promontory at the southern end of the city, were more victims, also horribly burned; few of these lived longer than a few hours.</p><br>
<p>The area of devastation covered about eight square miles. Inside this area, the annihilation of life and property was total; outside was a second, clearly defined zone where there were casualties, but the material damage was less, while beyond this lay a strip in which vegetation was scorched but life was spared.</p><br>
<p>Many victims were in casual attitudes, their features calm and reposeful, indicating that death had overtaken them without warning and without pain; others were contorted in anguish. The clothing had been torn from nearly all the victims struck down outdoors. Some houses were almost pulverized; it was impossible even for persons familiar with the city to identify the foundations of the city landmarks.</p><br>
<p>The city burned for days. Sanitation parties penetrated the calcined ruins bit by bit, to dispose of the dead by burning; burial was out of the question. The stench was sickening. Thousands of victims lay under a shroud of ashes, heaped in windrows several feet deep, caked by the rains; many of these bodies were not retrieved for weeks, and few were identifiable.</p><br>
<p>The United States quickly offered help to Martinique authorities. On 12 May, US president Theodore Roosevelt instructed the Secretaries of War, Navy, and Treasury to start relief measures at once. USA cruiser Cincinnati, lying at Santo Domingo, and the Navy tug Potomac at San Juan, Puerto Rico, were ordered to proceed to the disaster area as soon as possible. President Roosevelt asked Congress for an immediate appropriation of $500,000 for emergency assistance to the victims of the calamity. The President said: "One of the greatest calamities in history has befallen our neighboring island of Martinique... The city of St. Pierre has ceased to exist... The government of France... informs us that Fort-de-France and the entire island of Martinique are still threatened. They therefore request that, for the purpose of rescuing the people who are in such deadly peril and threatened with starvation, the government of the United States may send as soon as possible the means of transporting them from the stricken island." The US Congress voted for $200,000 of immediate assistance and set hearings to determine what larger sum might be needed when the full nature of the disaster could be learned. In an appeal for public funds the President empowered postmasters to receive donations for relief of the victims; a national committee of prominent citizens took charge of chartering supply ships.</p><br>
<p>Canada, the UK, Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, Japan, Russia and the Vatican also offered help.</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent activity</h3><br>
<p>On 20 May 1902, a second eruption equal to the first one in both type and force obliterated what was left of Saint-Pierre, killing 2000 rescuers, engineers, and mariners bringing supplies to the island. During a powerful eruption on August 30, 1902, a pyroclastic flow extended further east than the flows of 8 and 20 May. Although not quite as powerful as the previous two eruptions, the August 30 pyroclastic flow struck Morne Rouge (at least 800 fatalities), Ajoupa-Bouillon (250 fatalities), and parts of Basse-Pointe (25 fatalities) and Morne-Capot (10 fatalities). A tsunami caused some damage in Carbet. To date, this was the last fatal eruption of Mount Pelée.</p><br>
<p>The study of the causes of the disaster marked the beginning of modern volcanology with the definition and the analysis of the deadliest volcanic hazard: the pyroclastic flows and surges, also known as nuées ardentes (Fr: burning clouds). The eruption also lent its name to the "Peléan eruption style". Among those who studied Mount Pelée were Angelo Heilprin and Antoine Lacroix. Lacroix was the first to describe the nuée ardente (pyroclastic flow) phenomenon.</p><br>
<p>The destruction caused by the 1902 eruption was quickly publicized by recent modern means of communication. It brought to the attention of the public and governments the hazards and dangers of an active volcano.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pelée continued to erupt until 4 July 1905. Thereafter, the volcano took a rest and gave off no more than steam until 1929.</p><br>
<p>On 16 September 1929, Mount Pelée began to erupt again. This time, there was no hesitation on the part of authorities and the danger area was immediately evacuated. Although there were pyroclastic flows, the activity was not as violent as the 1902 activity. It culminated in another "spine" or lava plug, albeit smaller than the 1902 plug, being emplaced at the summit. The activity ended in late 1932.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic spine</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in October 1902, a dramatic volcanic spine grew from the crater floor in the Étang Sec crater, reaching a maximum width of about 100 to 150 m and a height of about 300 m. Called the "Needle of Pelée" or "Pelée&#39;s Tower", this extraordinary volcanic feature rose up to 15 m a day, and became twice the height of the Washington Monument and more or less the same volume as the Great Pyramid of Egypt. It became unstable and collapsed into a pile of rubble in March 1903, after 5 months of growth.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>A few volcanic earthquakes occur on Martinique every year, but Mount Pelée is under continuous watch by geophysicists and volcanologists (IPGP). As researcher Jean-Pierre Viode states, the volcanic observatory on Martinique would be able to observe activity months before an actual eruption.</p><br>
<p>The city of Saint-Pierre was never fully rebuilt, though some villages grew up in its place. The estimated population of Commune of Saint-Pierre in 2004 was 4,544.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>The Martinique volcano frog, Allobates chalcopis, is endemic to Mount Pelée, and the only species among related frogs (family Aromobatidae) endemic to an oceanic island.</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>The Day The World Ended by Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (Stein and Day, 1969, 306 pp). The authors used contemporary records and survivor accounts to construct a historically accurate novel of the events and lives of residents of Martinique, leading up to and through the tragic eruption of May 8, 1902.</p><br>
<p>Texaco by Patrick Chamoiseau (Gallimard, 1992. Trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov, Vintage International, 1998). In this novel that retraces several generations of Martiniques history, Esternome, the protagonist of the novels first part, witnesses firsthand the destruction caused by the volcano. Marie-Sophie Laborieux, Esternomes daughter and the novels narrator, recounts her fathers experiences and also discusses the traces of this event she has seen herself, including burn scars on her fathers body and ossuaries in the ruins of Saint-Pierre. The eruption and its aftermath are discussed in the section "Amour grillée" ("Barbecued Love").</p><br>
<p>Heat, by Jean Rhys.</p><br>
<p>Martinique Island by Rex Bestle. Based on the volcanic, eruption of Mount Pelee, that erupted on May 8, 1902 killing 30,000 people & destroyed the town of St. Pierre.</p><br>
<p>Mount Dana is a mountain in the USA state of California. Its summit marks the eastern boundary of Yosemite National Park and the western boundary of the Ansel Adams Wilderness. At an elevation of 13,061 ft, it is the second highest mountain in Yosemite , and the northernmost summit in the Sierra Nevada which is over 13000 feet in elevation. Mount Dana is the highest peak in Yosemite that is a simple hike to the summit. The mountain is named in honor of James Dwight Dana, who was a professor of natural history and geology at Yale.</p><br>
<p>Mount Dana is composed of prebatholithic rock that is mostly reddish metamorphic rock, which was composed by metavolcanics of surfacing magma from the Mesozoic Era.</p><br>
<p>Mount Dana&#39;s northern face includes a small, receding glacier known as the Dana Glacier. The Dana Meadows lie at the foot of the mountain. From the top, lakes throughout Dana Meadows, Mono Lake, and many other mountains are in view.</p><br>
<h2>Hike</h2><br>
<p>From the Tioga Pass Road there are many easy routes., available that lead to the summit along the mountain&#39;s western or southern slopes. These routes rise 3,108 ft in elevation in 2.9 mi, (a 20.3% average grade). The trail is not frequently maintained.</p><br>
<p>There is a clearly marked path leading just above tree line. After topping a ridge, a set of use-paths and ducked routes are present, with the main path running along the easterly ridgeline. Additionally, numerous alternate trail segments begin and end at various points on the southwestern face, making parts of this hike a difficult class 2. The path segments turn into scree toward the summit, where a shallow stone-walled shelter and register are found. Significant snow fields on the mountain slopes can exist late into the summer season. Total round trip hiking time can be anywhere between 3 and 12 hours depending many factors, such as acclimatization to elevation.</p><br>
<p>After reaching a plateau above the tree line, almost all vegetation disappears with the exception of lichen and a few high alpine Sky Pilot (Polemonium eximium). Fauna are largely limited to spiders and insects, such as black/brown grasshoppers. The only mammals other than humans are marmots and American Pikas which are lagomorphs related to rabbits.</p><br>
<p>Thunderstorms are known to arise suddenly, making the rocks slippery, and the hiking dangerous year round.</p><br>
<p>Even experienced hikers can face altitude sickness, due to the high elevation.</p><br>
<p>At 1,493 m the Feldberg in the Black Forest is the highest mountain in Baden-Württemberg, and the highest in Germany outside of the Alps. The local municipality of Feldberg was named after the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The Feldberg is situated southeast of Freiburg im Breisgau and is surrounded by the municipalities of Hinterzarten (northeast), Titisee (east), Menzenschwand (south), Bernau (also south) and Todtnau (southwest). About two kilometres southeast of the summit lies the village of Feldberg (1,277 m).</p><br>
<p>Between the main peak (1,493 m, also known as the Höchste or "Highest", and its subpeak, the Seebuck (1,448 m), just under 2 km away, is a saddle, the Grüble, from which a wide spur, the Baldenweger Buck (1,460 m) branches off. The saddle initially descends gently and then ever more steeply into the valleys on either side. From the Seebuck the Feldberg drops steeply away to the northeast into the Feldsee, a lake of glacial origin at about 1,000 m altitude. Deeply incised valleys run northwest towards Freiburg (the Zastler and St Wilhelmer valleys) and southwest towards Basle (Wiesental valley).</p><br>
<p>The main car park below the Seebuck can be reached from the B317 (federal highway) running from Titisee to Lörrach (near Basle) over the Feldberg Pass. A train service of the Three Lakes Railway serves the station of Feldberg-Bärental, at 967 m, the highest DB station on standard gauge track. A bus service connects with the station. The Seebuck, which is topped by an old transmission tower, the Feldberg Tower, once a radio tower, since 2013 a ham museum can be reached from the valley station in Feldberg-Ort on a short chairlift. From this point the summit of the Feldberg is about 2 km away. It is only accessible to the public on foot or by bicycle.</p><br>
<p>The numerous point-to-point radio systems of the Bundeswehr and the American and French armies dating from the Cold War period have been since taken down. Today Feldberg is marked by the old and new television towers and the Bismarck monument on the Seebuck.</p><br>
<p>Altogether there are more than 28 ski lifts and slopes around the Feldberg. The actual summit itself is situated outside the skiing areas. Several cross-country skiing trails around the peak and around Herzogenhorn opposite are popular with cross-country skiers. The whole area, with ski-runs of Alpine character, is popular for ski touring.</p><br>
<h3>Nature reserves</h3><br>
<p>Most of the Feldberg area has the status of a nature reserve because of its subalpine vegetation. The Feldberg Nature Reserve is the oldest and largest in Baden-Württemberg and has been under the charge of a full-time ranger since 1989. Since 2001 it has been the responsibility of the Southern Black Forest Nature Conservation Centre, based in the Haus der Natur ("Nature House"), to look after the reserve. They have a permanent, interactive exhibition and a comprehensive programme with events in the reserve. In 2005, a new nature trail was established immediately behind the house.</p><br>
<h3>Views</h3><br>
<p>The Feldberg offers one of the most extensive panoramic views in Germany – especially in winter when there is a temperature inversion. In the west, on the far side of the Upper Rhine Graben, can be seen the entire Vosges range, from the Ballon d&#39;Alsace to Mont Donon and Mont Sainte-Odile. Beyond that the southern Palatinate Forest can sometimes be seen. To the north is the Hornisgrinde; to the northeast the entire chain of the Swabian Jura, including the Lemberg, and, to its right, the Hegau volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>To the south, the Alps can be seen from the Alpspitze and Zugspitze in the east to the Allgäu Alps, Verwall Alps, Silvretta, Säntis, Glarus Alps, Urner Alps, Bernese Alps and Mont Blanc in the west. In front of the Western Alps and, particularly right of Mont Blanc, can be seen the Swiss Jura, with their highest point, the Chasseral. Thus the view sweeps from the Italian Mont Blanc to southwest Germany and from Austria to France.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountain&#39;s bedrock of gneiss is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the Precambrian as part of an orogen and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the Devonian and Carboniferous, as part of the Variscan orogeny. It, too, was eroded away, and, during the Mesozoic and Early Triassic, beds of Bunter sandstone, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger and Malm were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Tertiary. Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and aeolian erosion, and today little but the bedrock remains.</p><br>
<h2>Glacial morphology</h2><br>
<p>During the height of the Würm glaciation a glacier, 1,000 km² in area, covered the Black Forest. As a result, a lot of glacial influence can be seen in the region. There are several features that relate to the glacial morphology of the Feldberg. Firstly, there is the Feldsee. This tarn formed in the hollow that was scoured out by the ice pushing down the headwall of the cirque. Gradually the ice created a bowl that now holds the 33-metre-deep Feldsee. A moraine on the shores of the Feldsee testifies to this process.</p><br>
<p>The Feldseemoor, a few metres away, is also a remnant of the ice age. Here the terminal moraine of the "mini glacier" can be seem from the Feldsee. It has impounded water and formed a bog.</p><br>
<p>The glacial history of the Würm stage, 10,000-11,000 years ago, at the Feldberg evolved as follows:</p><br>
<p>The emergence of the Feldsee happened as the "Feldberg glacier" spread out. The adjacent Feldseemoor was the next stage. The glaciers then formed a moraine at Waldhof. This was exceeded once more at the Falkau, which marks its maximum extent. After that, the glacier retreated again.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and vegetation</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The annual mean temperature is around 3.9 &deg;C (30 year mean from 1981-2010), up 0.6°C compared with the period from 1961-1990. The climate is sub-Atlantic, and temperature gradients are lower than in the valleys. During winter, there are long periods of sunshine, due to the low condensation point. This also means that the Feldberg has relatively mild winters; the surrounding valleys having noticeably colder temperatures. The lowest temperature ever recorded was −30.7 &deg;C on 10 February 1956. The average rain/snowfall amount is 1,637 mm per year which is very high compared with Germany as a whole. On 97% of the survey marks of the German Weather Service lower figures are reported. Over the years snowfall has been reported in every calendar month. On average the Feldberg is covered in snow for 157 days per year. Because of its exposed location, wind speeds of hurricane force - up to 130 km/h - are possible throughout the year.</p><br>
<h3>Vegetation</h3><br>
<p>As its name suggests, the Feldberg&#39;s summit is not wooded. However, the sharp transition to forest illustrates it is no natural border. Even the top of the mountain does not reach the tree line which, in this region, would lie at around 1,650–1,700 metres.</p><br>
<p>Many of the open areas are habitats for specialised species of flora; these include bogs, moors, rock faces and snow fields. Below the summit the mountain is covered by mixed forest consisting of naturally growing European beech, European rowan, European spruce, European silver fir and cultivated North American species Douglas fir. Human activity has resulted in forest clearings, such as the large open areas around every hamlet.</p><br>
<p>That is attributable to the intensive cattle farming in this region, which limits forest growth. Today one comes across both pioneer species like European Rowans and different sorts of shrubs there. On many places there are primeval forests being left to its own resources. A characteristic of the vegetation represent the moors.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<h3>Summer</h3><br>
<p>Today tourism is the main source of income in the Feldberg region.</p><br>
<p>The mountain has several managed huts and inns - the Baldenweger Hut, Rinken Hut, Zastler Hut, St. Wilhelmer Hut and Todtnauer Hut - for the benefit of walkers that are linked by footpaths. These include the Felsenweg ("Rock Way") and the Alpiner Pfad ("Alpine Path") which run through some of the last landscapes in the Black Forest that still have an Alpine character. The 12-kilometre-long Feldberg Steig ("Feldberg Path") runs around the summit and the Feldsee. In addition there are metalled roads to the inns and other facilities around the peak.</p><br>
<h3>Winter</h3><br>
<p>See also: List of ski resorts in the German Central Uplands</p><br>
<p>Feldberg is the biggest winter skiing resort in Germany outside of the Alps. The first ski lift was originally built in 1907 in the Feldberg area. Today, there are around 14 ski lifts (including five at the Seebuck, among them a six-seater chairlift) and over 50 km of downhill runs up to a "black" level of difficulty. When there is sufficient snow, even a terrain park may be created. At the valley station are several garages for piste bashers and other equipment. There is a mountain rescue post below the old TV tower.</p><br>
<p>There are also many Nordic ski trails around the peak; two of which are the highest ones of Baden-Württemberg. Part of the cross-country skiing trail from Schonach to Belchen runs between Feldberg and Seebuck.</p><br>
<h2>Alpine dangers</h2><br>
<p>The Feldberg, like many low mountain ranges, is often underestimated in terms of its alpine dangers. Its easy accessibility by public transport, car and cable car suggests that it is not dangerous and, consequently, visitors may be inappropriately equipped or dressed.</p><br>
<p>The main dangers in the Feldberg region are sudden falls in temperature, storms or slipping on smooth, icy ground. Near tall structures such as the transmission masts there is the danger falling ice.</p><br>
<p>In fog or mist, orientation is clearly much more difficult. Often visibility is reduced to just a few metres. Marked paths outside the wooded areas are lined with poles to assist navigation.</p><br>
<p>Every winter there a several large avalanches in the Feldberg region. The mountainsides of the Zastler valley are particularly prone, but they also occur on leeward slopes like the Feldseekessel at Seebuck, the Herzogenhorn and the Baldenweger Buck. Snowfall driven by western winds forms cornices on the downwind sides of ridges (e. g. the Zastler Wechte), which can break off. Several fatal avalanche burials have happened, the last in January 2015 which left two dead.</p><br>
<p>There are no special avalanche reports issued for the Black Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Television towers</h2><br>
<p>During the Cold War there were many antennas on a military tower at the summit, but these were removed some years ago. Today, there is a large TV / radio transmission mast, used by the regional broadcasting station, SWR (Southwest Broadcasting). In addition, the mountain is recognisable from its Bismarck Monument, in honour of the famous 19th-century chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck.</p><br>
<h2>Meteorological station</h2><br>
<p>At the top of the mountain (where weather has been surveyed since 1915) is a weather station that has been in operation since 1937, run by the German Meteorological Service (WMO code number: 10908). Next to the observatory is a weather radar.</p><br>
<p>Kinnekulle is a flat-topped mountain in the county of Västergötland, Sweden, on the eastern shore of lake Vänern. Its highest point is 306 m above sea level. The mountain is 14 km long and 7 km wide at the top.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Despite its enormous size, Kinnekulle is actually the smaller remnant of a much larger plateau, long ago worn down to a flat plain. Some 550 million years ago, in the Neoproterozoic Era, the bottom-most rock of the plateau was under the sea. Layers of sedimentary rock formed over that layer from sand, mud, and sea animal remains.</p><br>
<p>About 200 million years ago, during the Mesozoic era, the area was uplifted above the sea. Tectonic activity forced molten lava through the sedimentary rock, creating sheetlike layers of diabase. These layers, when present, protected the softer sedimentary rock beneath them from erosion, resulting in mesa-like mountains such as Kinnekulle and its neighbours.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The historic town and church of Husaby are located on the south side of the Kinnekulle. Tradition says that Olof Skötkonung, the first Christian King of Sweden, was baptized here in 1008 at a well located just north of the church.</p><br>
<p>The mountain of Kinnefjellet at Spitsbergen, Svalbard, is named after Kinnekulle.</p><br>
<p>Long Island Sound is a tidal estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, lying between the eastern shores of Bronx County, New York City, southern Westchester County, and Connecticut to the north, and the North Shore of Long Island, to the south. From east to west, the sound stretches 110 miles  from the East River in New York City, along the North Shore of Long Island, to Block Island Sound. A mix of freshwater from tributaries and saltwater from the ocean, Long Island Sound is 21 miles  at its widest point and varies in depth from 65 to 230 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Shoreline</h2><br>
<p>Several major cities are situated along Long Island Sound and more than 8 million people live within its watershed. Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include Bridgeport, New London, Stamford, Norwalk, and New Haven. Cities on the New York side of the Sound include Rye, Glen Cove, New Rochelle, and portions of Queens and the Bronx in New York City</p><br>
<p>Mansions and wealthy neighborhoods characterize a good portion of the coast of the sound from Port Jefferson and east on Long Island; and from Pelham Manor and New Rochelle (on the mainland of New York) to Madison in Connecticut. Property values in Westchester County, Long Island, and southwestern Connecticut are among the highest in the nation, due to the proximity to New York City and their location on "The Sound".</p><br>
<h2>Climate and geography</h2><br>
<h3>Glacial history</h3><br>
<p>About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, Long Island Sound, and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late Wisconsin Glacier. About 3,300 feet (1,000 m) thick in its interior and about 1300 to 1600 ft thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of a series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years. Sea level at that time was about 330 feet (100 m) lower than today.</p><br>
<p>The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as drift) from the Connecticut coast into the Sound, creating what is now Long Island (the terminal moraine). When the ice sheet stopped advancing 18,000 years ago (as addition of snow at the origin was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island. Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the Harbor Hill Moraine along most of northern Long Island. The next moraines (recessional moraines) to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south.</p><br>
<p>The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison-Old Saybrook area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock creates rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them.</p><br>
<p>The Captain Islands off Greenwich, Connecticut, along with the Norwalk Islands and Falkner Island off Guilford, Connecticut are parts of a recessional moraine. Other islands, including the Thimble Islands, are for the most part exposed bedrock with a thin amount of drift, often not continuous. Other shoals and islands off the Connecticut coast are a mixture of these two extremes. The glacier also created several sandy outwash deltas off the coast, including one off Bridgeport, Connecticut and another off New Haven, Connecticut. Fishers Island, New York appears to be related to the Harbor Hill Moraine. To the east of the Thimble Islands, inland moraines along the Connecticut coast include the broken Madison Moraine and the Old Saybrook Moraine.</p><br>
<p>The Long Island Sound basin existed before the glaciers came. It probably had been formed by stream flows. A relatively thick cover of sand and gravel (termed outwash) was left in the basin from glacial meltwater streams. On the west, a ridge rising to about 65 feet (20 m) below the present sea level is called the Mattatuck Sill. Its lowest point is about 80 feet (25 m) below sea level. Glacial meltwater formed "Lake Connecticut", a freshwater lake in the basin, until about 8,000 years ago, when the sea level rose to about 80 feet (25 m) below today&#39;s level. Seawater then overflowed into the basin, transforming it from a nontidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm of the sea.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>Numerous rivers empty into the Sound, including:</p><br>
<p>Connecticut</p><br>
<p>Connecticut River - Old Saybrook</p><br>
<p>Housatonic River - Stratford & Milford</p><br>
<p>Mianus River - Greenwich</p><br>
<p>Mill River (Quinnipiac River) - New Haven</p><br>
<p>Mill River (Fairfield) - Fairfield</p><br>
<p>Norwalk River - Norwalk</p><br>
<p>Pequonnock River - Bridgeport</p><br>
<p>Quinnipiac River - New Haven</p><br>
<p>Rooster River/Ash Creek - Bridgeport & Fairfield</p><br>
<p>Rippowam River - Stamford</p><br>
<p>Saugatuck River - Westport</p><br>
<p>Thames River (Connecticut) - Groton & New London</p><br>
<p>West River (Connecticut) - West Haven</p><br>
<p>New York</p><br>
<p>Byram River - Port Chester</p><br>
<p>Hutchinson River-The Bronx</p><br>
<p>Mamaroneck River - Mamaroneck</p><br>
<p>Rhode Island</p><br>
<p>Pawcatuck River</p><br>
<h3>Watershed demographics</h3><br>
<p>The whole watershed population is about 8.93 million as of the 2010 Census.</p><br>
<p>Due to the large chunk of New England being under the watershed, due to the Connecticut River, a bunch of riverside cities/towns are covered in the watershed, here is a list of some of the large towns and cities in the watershed from south to north, west to east:</p><br>
<h4>New York</h4><br>
<p>Huntington</p><br>
<p>A chunk of New York City and parts of these boroughs,</p><br>
<p>Bronx</p><br>
<p>Queens</p><br>
<p>Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>Port Chester</p><br>
<h4>Connecticut</h4><br>
<p>Stamford</p><br>
<p>Bridgeport</p><br>
<p>New Haven</p><br>
<p>New London</p><br>
<p>Danbury</p><br>
<p>Waterbury</p><br>
<p>Norwich</p><br>
<p>Willimantic</p><br>
<p>Torrington</p><br>
<p>Hartford</p><br>
<h4>Rhode Island</h4><br>
<p>Westerly</p><br>
<h4>Massachusetts</h4><br>
<p>Springfield</p><br>
<p>Worcester</p><br>
<p>Pittsfield</p><br>
<h4>Vermont</h4><br>
<p>Brattleboro</p><br>
<p>White River Jct.</p><br>
<h4>New Hampshire</h4><br>
<p>Keene</p><br>
<p>West Lebanon</p><br>
<h2>Fauna and flora</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<h4>Seaweed</h4><br>
<p>Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on the sea floor. Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. Monostroma, reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. Grinnellia appears in August and disappears four to six weeks later.</p><br>
<p>In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds, which are characterized by their brown tone, Fucus and Ascophyllum, some species of which have air bladders that allow them to float and receive direct sunlight even at high tide. Also present are Ectocarpus and red algas Polysiphonia, Neosiphonia, Porphyra and Chondrus (Irish moss).</p><br>
<p>In the marshy areas of the intertidal zone can be found Cladophora (mermaid&#39;s hair), Ulva (sea lettuce) and Codium.</p><br>
<p>In the subtidal zone (below low tide) are Palmaria palmata a red alga, along with two algae, Laminaria (kelp) and Chorda. Kelp can often be found washed up on the beach, and individual specimens are not uncommonly a yard or two long. Deeper in the subtidal zone are red algae such as Spermothamnion, Antithamnion and Callithamnion, which also often float freely.</p><br>
<p>In tidal pools can be found red or pink colored Phymatolithon, which can often encrust rocks and mollusk shells. Also present are green algae, including Ulothrix, Cladophora, and Ulva.</p><br>
<h4>Plants found in tidal marshes</h4><br>
<p>Tidal marshes are some of the most productive biological systems in the world. Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound.</p><br>
<p>Salt water cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) grows along ditches and on the seaside edges of marshes where high tides daily inundate it. Salt meadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) and spikegrass (Distichlis spicata) grow in areas less frequently inundated by saltwater, typically closer to dry land. A short form of salt water cordgrass can sometimes be found in the depressions (pannes) in the higher areas where salt water collects and evaporates, leaving water even higher in salinity than seawater.</p><br>
<p>Other plants in the pannes are sea lavender, salt marsh aster, seaside gerardia, and some species of glasswort. Plants found near the border of the marsh with the upland include bayberry and groundsel-tree shrubs, switchgrass (growing where occasional storm tides reach), reeds and marsh elder.</p><br>
<p>In areas where the Sound&#39;s salt water is more diluted with freshwater from rivers (including along the shores of the larger river estuaries such as the Connecticut River, cattail marshes replace salt marshes. Various types of grasses, including wild rice, and sedges, including bulrushes, are found here.</p><br>
<p>Eelgrass is typically found in protected bays, coves and other areas of brackish water, but it also persists along areas of exposed shoreline along Long Island&#39;s north shore near Orient. Following the wasting disease of the early 1930s most of the eelgrass in the Sound was lost, but it subsequently returned, in the decades that followed, to many areas along the CT coast. The north shore of Long Island did not experience the same recovery. Eelgrass is one of the few vascular plants found in the marine environment and can tolerate a wide range of water salinity. It grows on muddy to sandy sediments (even among rocks), mostly below low tide, often forming large meadows. Eelgrass roots help stabilize muddy sediments and can trap moving sand, helping prevent erosion. The leaves, that can range in size from less than 1 m to 2 m long, slow currents, providing calm environments for many species of mollusks and other invertebrates. Eelgrass is also an important food source for waterfowl, especially brant, a type of goose. As of the late 1970s, the plant was fairly common on the Connecticut shore, but in the 1930s it was nearly wiped out by a mold infection called eelgrass wasting disease. Much of the mollusk and brant populations suffered steep declines. Eelgrass slowly recolonized and by the late 1970s had still not fully recovered. The disease reoccurs periodically.</p><br>
<h4>Plants found on beaches and dunes</h4><br>
<p>Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore, the ones that do are located along the eastern portion of the coastline (east of the Connecticut River). Sea rocket and dune grass occur here, but not in abundance. Dune grass and plants that thrive on dunes are largely responsible for the creation and growth of the dunes. On the seaward side of dunes can be found Lathyrus japonicus (beach pea), Dusty Miller, and seaside goldenrod. Other beach plants are orache, beach clotbur, seaside spurge, and jimson weed. On the more protected landward side of dunes are beach plum, bayberry and beach rose. Rare species found on the landward side are beach knotweed and sand false heather.</p><br>
<h4>Upland vegetation</h4><br>
<p>In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound&#39;s environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species. Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing the warmer environment provided by proximity to the Sound (which has a longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are less harsh). These include sweetgum (only found in Connecticut in the extreme southwestern area of the state), the American holly, post oak and persimmon, which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils, the Connecticut shore is the northern limit.</p><br>
<p>Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut coast is mostly hardwood forest, with dominant tree species including oaks and hickories, especially white oak, black oak, pignut hickory and mockernut hickory. Other trees include sassafras, black gum, and black cherry. Mature trees tend to be sparse in coastal forests, likely because of their greater exposure to the wind. This results in more sunlight reaching the forest floor, encouraging a jungle-like tangle of vines and shrubs, including the vines catbriar, poison ivy, bramble and bittersweet, and the shrubs blueberry, huckleberry, viburnum and hazelnut.</p><br>
<p>Along with the moderate climate, rare coastline storms can have an important impact on observable vegetation patterns. The greatest storms to hit the Sound in the twentieth century were the 1938 hurricane, the 1955 hurricane, Hurricane Belle in 1976, Hurricane Gloria in 1985, and Hurricane Irene in 2011. After Hurricane Belle, leaves near the coast were badly salt-burned, then turned brown and shriveled. Many trees were downed by the storm, leaving openings in the forest cover, promoting the growth of vines and shrubs.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<h4>Fish</h4><br>
<p>The Sound is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration).</p><br>
<p>The most common marine fish in the Sound include porgy, butterfish, winter flounder, summer flounder, windowpane flounder, fourspot flounder, northern and striped sea robin, little skate, menhaden, Atlantic silversides, black seabass, blackfish (tautog), cunner, bluefish, and smooth dogfish. Frequently Atlantic bonito and false albacore, both members of the tuna family, enter the sound and can be caught by anglers from small boats and shore. Many species have declined rapidly since 1975 due to over fishing. Winter flounder may not be currently present except for rare, small local populations. Tautog and summer flounder are also less numerous. Anadromous fishes include striped bass, white perch, alewives, blueback herring, and American and hickory shad. Although several shark species likely infrequently wander in and out of the Sound, e.g. blue shark, mako shark, hammerhead shark & thresher shark, there are only four species of sharks which are regularly found in the area. These are the sand tiger shark, the sandbar shark, the spiny dogfish and the smooth dogfish.</p><br>
<h4>Mollusks</h4><br>
<p>Mollusks (gastropods and bivalves) that can be found include the rough periwinkle near the high-tide line, the European periwinkle, the northern yellow periwinkle, the blue mussel (a popular, edible species), the eastern oyster, the Atlantic slipper shell or "common slippershell" (Crepidula fornicata), the hard clam (also known as the quahog, little neck clam or cherrystone clam), the Atlantic bay scallop, the mud snail (also known as the eastern mud nassa), the salt marsh snail (or "coffee bean snail"), the Atlantic oyster drill, the northern moon snail, Atlantic moon snail, the channeled and knobbed whelks.</p><br>
<h4>Crustacea</h4><br>
<p>Crustaceans include crabs, shrimp and lobsters. In the Sound there are the green crab (a non-native species first reported in Boston around 1900, but a common crab found on the shore, where it feeds on eastern oysters and soft-shell clams), blue crab, red crab, Jonah crab in deepwater areas, and the Atlantic rock crab, which settles in large numbers along rocky shores, especially around Millstone Point, Niantic Bay and Fishers Island Sound. Other crabs found include the lady crab, spider crabs, and fiddler crabs; hermit crabs and mole crabs are also found. By the late 1980s, the Japanese shore crab, an invasive species, was the most commonly found crab in the sound.</p><br>
<p>The sand shrimp Crangon septemspinosa and two species of grass shrimp are plentiful along the shore, especially in late summer and fall. The American lobster is fished commercially.</p><br>
<h4>Mammals, reptiles, and amphibians</h4><br>
<p>Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of shrews, the masked shrew and the American short-tailed shrew, are common in salt marshes. The least shrew has been thought to exist in small numbers in the salt marshes of western Connecticut. Rodents include the white-footed mouse, the meadow vole (probably the most abundant coastal mammal) and the meadow jumping mouse. Muskrats are heavily trapped but remain abundant. Raccoons and red foxes who live in areas near the marshes will hunt in them. The long-tailed weasel and short-tailed weasel are both found near the Sound, occasionally living in the salt marshes. Harbor seals and gray seals can be found among the rocks off Stonington and Groton at the eastern end. Long-finned pilot whales and harbor porpoises can also be infrequently sighted in open water, a few miles off the coast. In 1975, a finback whale beached itself in Groton.</p><br>
<p>Animals that need moist woodlands are found in the coastal area (and elsewhere), including the diamondback terrapin in salt marshes and brackish waters (and deposits and hatches its eggs on nearby sandy beaches). Terrapin meat became such a popular delicacy in the early 1900s that the price for a dozen adult females reached as high as US$120. Overhunting made the species uncommon and even rare through most of the Sound and completely eliminated at some places. After its popularity as food declined, the terrapin population started recovering.</p><br>
<p>Sea turtles occasionally travel north on the Gulf Stream and wander into the Sound. The loggerhead turtle, green turtle and leatherback turtle are rarely seen along the Connecticut shore.</p><br>
<p>Other reptiles and amphibians found along the edges of the salt marshes and nearby bodies of water include the green frog, bullfrog, pickerel frog, spotted turtle, painted turtle, northern water snake, and common snapping turtle. On beaches and sandy areas there are Fowlers toads (which are also found inland but find sandy areas preferable), the American toad, and the hognose snake (which feeds on Fowlers toads).</p><br>
<h4>Birds</h4><br>
<p>There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields. Some birds are summer residents or winter residents, while others are spring and fall transients. Year round residents include herring gull, greater black-backed gull, common tern and double-crested cormorant. Much of the terns habitat and nesting areas have been taken over by the over-abundant comorant over the last several decades. The terns are now not commonly seen. Coastal migrants (also called "transients") include shorebirds such as plovers, turnstones, sandpipers, willet and yellowlegs. Summer residents include the seaside sparrow, sharp-tailed sparrow, Nelson&#39;s sparrow, clapper rail, mallard and black duck, herons and egrets, including the black-crowned night heron and snowy egret as well as the least tern and piping plover. Upland species include the hooded warbler, white-eyed vireo, eastern meadowlark and Carolina wren.</p><br>
<p>Winter residents include large flocks of ducks, geese, and swans winter in the Sound. In West Haven, Connecticut 8,000 scaup (also called broadbills or bluebills) were regularly counted in the 1970s. Greater scaup, black ducks, mallards, and Canada geese are the most abundant wintering birds. There are also significant populations of red-breasted mergansers, common goldeneyes, buffleheads, scoters, American wigeons (also sometimes called baldpate), canvasbacks, oldsquaws and mute swans. Others (less abundant) include gadwalls, northern pintails, green-winged teal, northern shovelers (also sometimes called broadbill), ruddy ducks, redheads, ring-necked ducks, snow geese, and brant.</p><br>
<h4>Rare and endangered species</h4><br>
<p>Rare, endangered and extinct species of the Sound include the eastern spadefoot, a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn&#39;t been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is beige or off-white with a pattern of green markings. Small orange dots punctuate this pattern.</p><br>
<p>As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon, listed as endangered by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River (CDEP 2003, Savoy 2004). Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam (Savoy and Shake 1992). While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along the Atlantic Coast, tagged individuals sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Long Island Sound was formed when the terminal moraine that dammed the waters of glacial Lake Connecticut failed, and sea water mixed with the lakes fresh waters. The first European to record the existence of Long Island Sound was the Dutch navigator Adriaen Block, who entered the sound from the East River in 1614. The sound was known as The Devils Belt in colonial times and the reefs that run across the sound were known as Devil&#39;s Stepping Stones, from which Stepping Stones Lighthouse got its name.</p><br>
<h2>Uses</h2><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably the Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry (between Port Jefferson and Bridgeport), and the Cross Sound Ferry (between Orient Point and New London). The ferries that cross Long Island Sound carry automobiles, trucks and buses, as well as foot passengers.</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing, including oysters, lobsters, scallops, blue crabs, tuna flounder, striped bass, and bluefish. However, in recent years the western part of the sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life. The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead water and rectify the problem.</p><br>
<p>Lobsters have suffered diseases of unknown cause, but recreational fishing improved dramatically in the last 10 years due, in large part, to restoring a key component in the food chain, menhaden (a.k.a. "bunker") fish which are a mainstay of striped bass and other pelagic fish. The ban of netting of bunker - which were over-fished in the late 1990s - has significantly improved the quality and volume of the striped bass population in Long Island Sound.</p><br>
<h3>Further development</h3><br>
<p>Underwater cables transmit electricity under Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island, and an older one from Rye in Westchester County to Oyster Bay on Long Island. Scientists debate whether submarine power cables are safe for underwater lifeforms.</p><br>
<p>Broadwater Energy LLC, a joint venture between the Shell Oil Company and TransCanada Corporation, has proposed building a floating liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal 11 mi from the Connecticut shore and 9 mi from Long Island. The installation is estimated to save the region in excess of $600 million a year in energy costs. The terminal would regasify LNG offloaded from ships, and this gas would flow through pipelines under the sound to New York and Connecticut. Some politicians from both states, such as New York Senator Chuck Schumer, are fiercely opposed to the terminal, claiming that alternative energy sources and conservation should be pursued instead of adding new distribution lines and supply sources. Local Connecticut politicians have little influence since the terminal would be located entirely within waters that are part of New York State (although Connecticut senators and representatives may be able to stop the platform at the federal level).</p><br>
<p>Certain politicians in the United States Congress have proposed offshore oil drilling in Long Island Sound, which has met staunch opposition by residents of New York and Connecticut, environmentalists, and Democrats.</p><br>
<p>Over the years, bridges over the sound have been proposed, including a bridge between Rye in Westchester County and Oyster Bay on Long Island; between New Haven, Connecticut and Shoreham on Long Island; between Bridgeport, Connecticut and Port Jefferson on Long Island; or between Orient Point, New York and Rhode Island. A tunnel under the sound, as between Rye and Oyster Bay has also been proposed, to carry both freeway lanes and railroads. However, no crossing has been built since the Throgs Neck Bridge in the early 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>Major environmental problems currently affecting the Sound include hypoxia, toxic substance and pathogen contamination, debris and other man-made pollution, and overdevelopment. Industrial pollution includes mercury influx from the hatting industry in Danbury, Connecticut. To address the water quality problems, EPA created the Long Island Sound Study (LISS) to support development of a nitrogen TMDL. The TMDL implements innovative strategies, including a nitrogen credit trading program for sewage treatment plants in Connecticut, and bubble permits for sewage treatment plants in New York. Results point to significant nitrogen reductions in Long Island Sound, and significant cost savings.</p><br>
<p>New York City and other municipal sewage systems have long dumped nitrogen, among other nutrient pollutants, into the Sound, which contributes to hypoxic conditions, especially in the western half of the Sound. In addition, the Sound receives ground water run off from a total of six states within the Long Island Sound watershed. By 1994, a plan to reduce nitrogen outputs of effluent into the Sound was agreed to by the federal government and the states of New York and Connecticut. The goal was to reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the Sound by 58.5 percent as of 2014. New York City agreed with New York state and Connecticut to reduce nitrogen levels in 1998, but backed off its commitment and was sued by the state. In early 2006, the city agreed to lower nitrogen outputs and was given until 2017 to meet its reduction goals. By 2007, $617 million had been spent in upgrading sewage treatment plants, with 39 out of 104 retrofitted with devices to remove nitrogen.</p><br>
<p>A 2007 report by the Long Island Sound Study, a project of the USA Environmental Protection Agency, said the nitrogen flow is down 20 percent since 1994. But a study released in June 2007 by the Connecticut Council on Environmental Quality stated that in 2006 the area affected by hypoxia was a bit larger than in 1991.</p><br>
<p>There have been some improvements over the years, according to officials from the Long Island Sound Study. Levels of nitrogen have decreased in the waters off Stamford, Connecticut and in some areas west of Stamford. Yet some nitrogen pollution has been stored in the sediment at the bottom of the Sound, and warmer weather also keeps down levels of dissolved oxygen, according to the Sound Study officials.</p><br>
<p>Starting in the 1990s, Connecticut and federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials created no-dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline. In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage. New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans, but not Massachusetts, Maine or New York. From the 1990s to 2007, the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast. Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines, or a federal civil penalty, with fines of up to $2,000.</p><br>
<p>"Not a whole lot is going to change until New York City gets on the nitrogen problem," said Tom Andersen, author of This Fine Piece of Water: An Environmental History of Long Island Sound, in a newspaper interview in June 2007. The city Department of Environmental Protection said it is spending millions of dollars to upgrade its four sewage treatment plants, and that the upgrade should significantly cut nitrogen discharges.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the Sound was in the worst condition, according to the USA Environmental Protection Agency&#39;s National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007. The report gives a "fair" rating to water quality in the sound and poor marks to</p><br>
<p>fish, bottom-feeders and sediment. High levels of PCBs, were found in fish samples, and high concentrations of DDT were found in sediment. Development resulting from population increases, past industrial pollution and stormwater runoff all contribute to the poor quality of the water, according to the report.</p><br>
<p>Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected diatoms — microscopic, single-celled algae at the base of the food chain, which make shells (frustules) of opaline silica. When diatoms are less productive, they are replaced by other phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or blue-green algae, which grow well in waters with high nitrogen levels, but do not need silica. Such a change in the base of the foodchain could have such consequences as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish. Gary Wikfors, a fish biologist with the Milford, Connecticut office of the federal National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said he has seen no evidence of fewer plankton in the sound or more blue-green algae. "I study algae blooms," he said in a newspaper report. "I have to go to the Chesapeake Bay to study them. I can&#39;t find them in the Sound."</p><br>
<h3>Dumping of dredged sediment</h3><br>
<p>Polluted sediment from harbor, river and waterway dredging has been dumped in four sites in the Sound, although in late 2007 two of them at the eastern end of the Sound were scheduled to be closed at some future date. A dumping site near Stamford, Connecticut and another near New Haven, Connecticut were expected to remain open. In 2007, the USA EPA and USA Army Corps of Engineers began a five- to seven-year, $16 million study on more environmentally friendly ways to dredge harbors in the Sound. Dumping the sediment in the Sound is considerably less expensive than other options, according to Connecticut harbor officials and state and federal environmental officials.</p><br>
<p>Federal officials have said sediment from Bridgeport Harbor is too contaminated for disposal in the Sound, and in 2007 state Department of Environmental Protection officials required Norwalk, Connecticut to "cap" 350,000 cubic yards of dumped sediment from a planned Norwalk Harbor dredging project with 75,000 cubic yards of material. Silt and sediment from the harbor cointains heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, according to DEP officials.</p><br>
<h2>Legal status</h2><br>
<p>In 1985, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Long Island Sound is a juridical bay. The case involved a jurisdictional dispute among New York State, Rhode Island, and The United States.</p><br>
<p>The classification of juridical bay means that the states, and not the federal government, have jurisdiction over the Long Island Sound waters. This also means that the legal coastline of the United States incorporates the southern shore of Long Island, but not the alternative that would have been to consider the coastline to follow additionally the southern shores of Connecticut, and the eastern shores of Westchester County, The Bronx, and Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>The Lielupe  is a river in central Latvia. Its length is 119 km . The surface area of its drainage basin is 17,600 km². The average fall of the Lielupe is about  and its average flow is 106 m³/s, although a maximum of 1380 m³/s has been reached during floods.</p><br>
<h2>Physical geography</h2><br>
<p>The Lielupe begins at the confluence of the Mēmele and Mūsa rivers near Bauska. For the upper part of its course, the river flows through a dolomite valley with a few small rapids, until it reaches Mežotne, where it widens and deepens over the flat Zemgale Plain. For many years the Lielupe would frequently overflow its shallow banks and flood surrounding fields and villages, particularly during the spring thaw. Today many parts of the Lielupes banks are contained with earthen dikes to prevent disastrous floods. Much of the Lielupe is covered in river grasses. At its lower reaches, the river flows parallel to the coast line of the Gulf of Riga; the city of Jūrmala stretches for almost 30 km between the river and the sea. Eventually the Lielupe flows into the Baltic Sea, while the Buļļupe branch (Kurische Aa) flows into the Daugava River. The modern mouth of the river appeared in 1755. Before then the Buļļupe was the Lielupes main channel.</p><br>
<p>About 50-55% of the water discharge of the river is from melted snow. The Lielupe is navigable for a range of 100 km, the longest continuous range among Latvian rivers. Municipalities along the river include Bauska, Mežotne, Jelgava, Kalnciems, Jūrmala and Riga.</p><br>
<p>The Lielupe also gives its name to a railway station and a neighbourhood in the city of Jūrmala.</p><br>
<p>Woodhenge is a Neolithic Class II henge and timber circle monument located in the Stonehenge World Heritage Site in Wiltshire, England. It is 2 mi north-east of Stonehenge in the parish of Durrington, just north of Amesbury.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>Woodhenge was identified from an aerial photograph taken by Squadron Leader (later Group Captain) Gilbert Insall, VC, in 1926. during the same period that an aerial archaeology survey of Wessex by Alexander Keiller and OGS Crawford (Archaeology Officer for the Ordnance Survey) was also being undertaken. Although some sources attribute the identification of the henge to Crawford, Crawford himself credits its discovery to Gilbert Insall. However the site had been previously found in the early 19th century and described as an earthworks and thought to be a disc barrow. It was originally called Dough Cover. Maud Cunnington and B.H.Cunnington subsequently excavated the site between 1926 and 1929. confirming that it was indeed a henge.</p><br>
<h2>Date</h2><br>
<p>Pottery from the excavation was identified as being consistent with the grooved ware style of the middle Neolithic, although later Beaker sherds were also found. So, the structure was probably built during the period of cultural similarities commonly known as the Beaker. The Beaker culture spans both the Late Neolithic and Britain&#39;s Early Bronze Age and includes both the distinctive "bell beaker" type ceramic vessels for which the cultural grouping is known as well as other local styles of pottery from the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>While construction of the timber monument was probably earlier, the ditch has been dated to between 2470 and 2000 BC, which would be about the same time as, or slightly later than, construction of the stone circle at Stonehenge. Radiocarbon dating of artefacts shows that the site was still in use around 1800 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>The site consists of six concentric oval rings of postholes, the outermost being about 43 by wide. They are surrounded first by a single flat-bottomed ditch, 2.4 m deep and up to 12 m wide, and finally by an outer bank, about 10 m wide and 1 m high. With an overall diameter measuring 110 m (including bank and ditch,) the site had a single entrance to the north-east.</p><br>
<p>At the centre of the rings was a crouched inhumation of a child which Cunnington interpreted as a dedicatory sacrifice, its skull having been split. After excavation, the remains were taken to London, where they were destroyed during The Blitz, making further examination impossible. Cunnington also found a crouched inhumation of a teenager within a grave dug in the Eastern section of the ditch, opposite the entrance.</p><br>
<p>Most of the 168 post holes held wooden posts, although Cunnington found evidence that a pair of standing stones may have been placed between the second and third post hole rings. Excavations in 2006 indicated that there were at least five standing stones on the site, arranged in a "cove". The deepest post holes measured up to 2 m – and are believed to have held posts which reached as high as 7.5 m above ground. Those posts would have weighed up to 5 tons, and their arrangement was similar to that of the bluestones at Stonehenge. The positions of the postholes are currently marked with modern concrete posts – a simple and informative method of displaying the site.</p><br>
<p>Further comparisons with Stonehenge were quickly noticed by Cunnington – both have entrances oriented approximately to the midsummer sunrise, and the diameters of the timber circles at Woodhenge and the stone circles at Stonehenge are similar.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship with other monuments</h2><br>
<p>Over 40 years after the discovery of Woodhenge, another timber circle of comparable size was discovered in 1966. Known as the Southern Circle, inside of what came to be known as the Durrington Walls henge enclosure, located only 70 m north of Woodhenge.</p><br>
<p>There are various theories about possible timber structures that might have stood on and about the site, and their purpose, but it is likely that the timbers were freestanding, rather than part of a roofed structure. For many years work on the study of Stonehenge had overshadowed any real breakthroughs in the understanding of Woodhenge. Recent ongoing investigations as part of the Stonehenge Riverside Project are now starting to cast new light on the site and on its relationship with neighbouring sites and Stonehenge.</p><br>
<p>Theories have emerged in which the sites may all be integrated into an overall layout, in which the structures were linked by roads, and which incorporated the natural features of the River Avon. One of these paths, consisting of a series of wide parallel banks and ditches referred to as Stonehenge Avenue, crosses the ridge between the two sites that would otherwise make them both visible from one another, possibly connecting them physically as well as spiritually.</p><br>
<p>One suggestion is that the use of wood vs. stone may have held a special significance in the beliefs and practices involving the transformation between life and death, possibly separating the two sites into separate "domains". These theories have partially come about with the findings of bones of butchered pigs exclusively at Woodhenge, showing evidence of feasting, leaving Stonehenge as a site only inhabited by ancestral spirits, and not living people. These same possible representations have also been seen in ritualistic megalithic sites on the island of Madagascar, at least 4,000 years after the erection of Woodhenge.</p><br>
<h2>Other uses</h2><br>
<p>Woodhenge is a piece of music on the 1979 album Platinum and the b side of the single "Blue Peter" by Mike Oldfield, and later appears in the compilation album The Platinum Collection.</p><br>
<p>The Moro Gulf is the largest gulf in the Philippines. It located off the coast of Mindanao Island, and is part of the Celebes Sea. The gulf is one of the country&#39;s tuna fishing grounds.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The gulf stretches between and is surrounded by the main section of Mindanao on the east, and the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao on the west. The peninsula&#39;s major drainage goes towards the gulf.</p><br>
<p>Sibuguey Bay and Illana Bay are its major bays.</p><br>
<p>Zamboanga City, which is an international port, is bound by the Gulf and Celebes Sea in the East. Cotabato City, on the eastern coast, is another major port.</p><br>
<h2>Earthquakes</h2><br>
<p>The Moro Gulf is also an area of significant tectonic activity with several fault zones in the region capable of producing major earthquakes and destructive local tsunamis, such as the devastating 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake which killed over 5,000 people and left over 90,000 people homeless as it hit the west coast of Mindanao.</p><br>
<p>The Babuyan Islands, also known as the Babuyan Group of Islands, is an archipelago in the Philippines, located in the Luzon Strait north of the main island of Luzon. The archipelago consists of four major islands and their surrounding smaller islands. These main islands are, counterclockwise starting from northeast, Babuyan, Calayan, Dalupiri, Fuga, and Camiguin. The Babuyan Islands are separated from Luzon by the Babuyan Channel, and from the province of Batanes to the north by the Balintang Channel.</p><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>The origins of the Babuyan people date back some 60,000+ years ago when Negrito tribes inhabited the islands, later Austonesians migrated to the islands. In the late 1580s large groups Filipinos fled the mainland when Spain began to invade the Philippines. The small islands now have a mixture of different ethnic groups. Since the early 1800s people from Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga and even Japan have settled on the group of islands. While the native people are considered Filipino they are an ethnic mix of the people from Samoa, Hawaii, Japan and Tonga that now call the islands home.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Some Babuyan people are majority polytheistic and believe in multiple gods, others practice Hinduism. In the 1940s American soldiers introduced the native people to the Christian religion and now 30% of the natives are Christian.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The whole archipelago is administered under the province of Cagayan with Babuyan, Calayan, Camiguin, and Dalupiri comprising the municipality of Calayan while Fuga is under the municipality of Aparri. Babuyan and Dalupiri are themselves individual barangays in Calayan municipality, respectively named Babuyan Claro and Dalupiri, while Fuga Island is also an individual barangay, also named Fuga Island, in Aparri.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The eastern islands of the archipelago are part of the Luzon Volcanic Arc. Three volcanoes from two of the islands have erupted in historical times – Camiguin de Babuyanes on Camiguin Island, Babuyan Claro (also known as Mount Babuyan) on Babuyan Island. Smith Volcano is in Camiguin Island Another small volcanic island located just 22 km NE of Camiguin Island, Didicas Volcano on Didicas Island, became a permanent island only during the activity of 1952.</p><br>
<p>Humpback Whales have re-colonized into the area and the Babuyan became the only wintering ground for the species in the Philippines although historical records among Babuyan Islands have not been confirmed.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>The following are the islands of Babuyan and their adjoining islets and rocks:</p><br>
<p>Babuyan Claro</p><br>
<p>Pan de Azucar Island</p><br>
<p>Calayan</p><br>
<p>Panuitan Island</p><br>
<p>Wyllie Rocks</p><br>
<p>Camiguin</p><br>
<p>Guinapac Rocks</p><br>
<p>Pamoctan Island</p><br>
<p>Pinon Island</p><br>
<p>Dalupiri Island</p><br>
<p>Irao Islet</p><br>
<p>Didicas Island</p><br>
<p>Fuga Island</p><br>
<p>Barit Island</p><br>
<p>Mabag Island</p><br>
<p>Mayon , also known as Mayon Volcano or Mount Mayon, is an active stratovolcano in the province of Albay in Bicol Region, on the large island of Luzon in the Philippines. Renowned as the "perfect cone" because of its symmetric conical shape, the volcano and its surrounding landscape was declared a national park on July 20 of 1938, the first in the nation. It was reclassified a Natural Park and renamed as the Mayon Volcano Natural Park in 2000. Local folklore refers to the volcano being named after the legendary princess-heroine Daragang Magayon .</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Mayon is the main landmark and highest point of the province of Albay and the whole Bicol Region in the Philippines, rising 2,462 m from the shores of the Albay Gulf about 10 km away. The volcano is geographically shared by the eight cities and municipalities of Legazpi City, Daraga, Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao City, Tabaco City, Malilipot and Santo Domingo (clockwise from Legazpi), which divide the cone like slices of a pie when viewed from above.</p><br>
<h2>Geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>Mayon is a classic stratovolcano with a small central summit crater. The cone is considered the world&#39;s most perfectly formed volcano for its symmetry, which was formed through layers of lava flows and pyroclastic surges from past eruptions and erosion. The upper slopes of the basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano are steep, averaging 35–40 degrees.</p><br>
<p>Like other volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean, Mayon is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is on the southeast side of Luzon, close to the Philippine Trench, which is the convergent boundary where the Philippine Sea Plate is driven under the Philippine Mobile Belt. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the lighter and thicker continental material overrides the thinner and heavier oceanic plate, forcing it down into the Earth&#39;s mantle and melting it. Superheated magma and gases may be forced through weaknesses in the continental crust caused by the subduction of the oceanic plate, and one such exit point is Mayon.</p><br>
<h2>Recorded eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Mayon is the most active volcano in the Philippines, erupting over 51 times in the past 400 years. The first record of a major eruption was witnessed in February 1616 by Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen who recorded it on his log in his circumnavigation trip around the world. The first eruption for which an extended account exists was the six-day event of July 20, 1766.</p><br>
<h3>1814 eruption</h3><br>
<p>The most destructive eruption of Mayon occurred on February 1, 1814 (VEI=4). Lava flowed but less than the 1766 eruption. The volcano belched dark ash and eventually bombarded the town of Cagsawa with tephra that buried it. Trees burned, rivers were certainly damaged. Proximate areas were also devastated by the eruption, with ash accumulating to 9 m in depth. In Albay, 2,200 locals perished in what is considered to be the most lethal eruption in Mayon&#39;s history; though estimates by PHIVOLCS list the casualties at about 1,200. The eruption is believed to have contributed to the accumulation of atmospheric ash capped by the catastrophic 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, that led to the Year Without a Summer in 1816.</p><br>
<h3>1881–1882 eruption</h3><br>
<p>From July 6, 1881 until approximately August 1882, Mayon underwent a strong (VEI=3) eruption. Samuel Kneeland, a naturalist, professor and geologist, personally observed the volcanic activity on Christmas Day, 1881, about five months after the start of the activity:</p><br>
<p>At the date of my visit, the volcano had poured out, for five months continuously, a stream of lava on the Legaspi side from the very summit. The viscid mass bubbled quietly but grandly, and overran the border of the crater, descending several hundred feet in a glowing wave, like red-hot iron. Gradually, fading as the upper surface cooled, it changed to a thousand sparkling rills among the crevices, and, as it passed beyond the line of complete vision behind the woods near the base, the fires twinkled like stars, or the scintillions of a dying conflagration. More than half of the mountain height was thus illuminated.</p><br>
<h3>1897 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Mayon&#39;s longest uninterrupted eruption occurred on June 23, 1897 (VEI=4), which lasted for seven days of raining fire. Lava once again flowed down to civilization. Eleven kilometers (7 miles) eastward, the village of Bacacay was buried 15 m beneath the lava. In Sto.Domingo 100 people were killed by steam and falling debris or hot rocks. Other villages like San Roque, Misericordia and Santo Niño became deathtraps. Ash was carried in black clouds as far as 160 km from the catastrophic event, which killed more than 400 people.</p><br>
<h3>1984 and 1993 eruptions</h3><br>
<p>No casualties were recorded from the 1984 eruption after more than 73,000 people were evacuated from the danger zones as recommended by PHIVOLCS scientists. But in 1993, pyroclastic flows killed 75 people, mainly farmers, during the eruption.</p><br>
<h3>2006 eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Mayon&#39;s 48th modern-era eruption was on July 13, 2006, followed by quiet effusion of lava that started on July 14, 2006. Nearly 40,000 people were evacuated from the 8 km danger zone on the southeast flank of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>After an ash explosion of September 1, 2006, a general decline in the overall activity of Mayon was established. The decrease in key parameters such as seismicity, sulfur dioxide emission rates and ground inflation all indicated a waning condition. The slowdown in the eruptive activity was also evident from the decrease in intensity of crater glow and the diminishing volume of lava extruded from the summit. PHILVOLCS Alert Level 4 was lowered to Level 3 on September 11, 2006; to Level 2 on October 3, 2006; and to Level 1 on October 25, 2006.</p><br>
<h3>2008 eruption</h3><br>
<p>On August 10, 2008, a small summit explosion ejected ash 200 m above the summit, which drifted east-northeast. In the weeks prior to the eruption,</p><br>
<h3>2009–2010 eruption</h3><br>
<p>On July 10, 2009, PHIVOLCS raised the status from Alert Level 1 (low level unrest) to Alert Level 2 (moderate unrest) because the number of recorded low frequency volcanic earthquakes rose to the same level as those prior to the 2008 phreatic explosion.</p><br>
<p>At 5:32 a.m. on October 28, 2009, a minor ash explosion lasting for about one minute occurred in the summit crater. A brown ash column rose about 600 m above the crater and drifted northeast. In the prior 24 hours, 13 volcanic earthquakes were recorded. Steam emission was at moderate level, creeping downslope toward the southwest. PHIVOLCS maintained the Alert Status at Level 2, but later warned that with the approach of tropical cyclone international codename Mirinae, the danger of lahars and possible crater wall collapse would greatly increase and all specified precautions should be taken.</p><br>
<p>At 1:58 am on November 11, 2009, a minor ash explosion occurred at the summit crater lasting for about three minutes. This was recorded by the seismic network as an explosion-type earthquake with rumbling sounds. Incandescent rock fragments at the upper slope were observed in nearby barangays. Ash column was not observed because of cloud cover. After dawn, field investigation showed ashfall had drifted southwest of the volcano. In the 24-hour period, the seismic network recorded 20 volcanic earthquakes. Alert Status was kept at Level 2 indicating the current state of unrest could lead to more ash explosion or eventually to hazardous magmatic eruption.</p><br>
<p>At 8 pm on December 14, 2009, after 83 volcanic quakes in the preceding 24 hours and increased sulfur dioxide emissions, PHIVOLCS raised the Alert status to Level 3.</p><br>
<p>Early in the morning of December 15, 2009, a moderate ash explosion occurred at the summit crater and "quiet extrusion of lava" resulted in flows down to about 500 m from the summit. By evening, Albay Province authorities evacuated about 20,000 residents out of the 8 km danger zone and into local evacuation centres. About 50,000 people live within the 8 km zone.</p><br>
<p>On December 17, 2009, five ash ejections occurred, with one reaching 500 m above the summit. Sulfur dioxide emission increased to 2,758 tonnes per 24 hours, lava flows reached down to 1,500 m below the summit, and incandescent fragments from the lava pile continuously rolling down Bonga Gully reached a distance of 3–4 km below the summit. By midday, a total of 33,833 people from 7,103 families had been evacuated, 72 percent of the total number of people that needed to be evacuated, according to Albay Governor Joey Salceda.</p><br>
<p>On December 20, 2009, PHIVOLCS raised Mayon&#39;s status level to alert level 4 because of an increasing lava flow in the southern portion of the volcano and an increase in sulfur dioxide emission to 750 tonnes per day. Almost 460 earthquakes in the volcano were monitored. In the border of the danger zone, rumbling sounds like thunder were heard. Over 9,000 families (44,394 people) were evacuated by the Philippine government from the base of the volcano. No civilian was permitted within the 8 km danger zone, which was cordoned off by the Philippine military who actively patrolled to enforce the "no-go" rule and to ensure no damage or loss of property of those evacuated.</p><br>
<p>Alert level 4 was maintained as the volcano remained restive through December, prompting affected residents to spend Christmas and the New Year in evacuation centers. On December 25, sulfur dioxide emissions peaked at 8,993 tons per day. On December 28, PHIVOLCS director Renato Solidum commented on the status of the volcano, "You might think it is taking a break but the volcano is still swelling." The ejected volcanic material since the start of the eruption was estimated to have been between 20 million to 23 million cubic meters of rocks and volcanic debris, compared to 50 million to 60 million cubic meters in past eruptions.</p><br>
<p>On January 2, 2010, PHIVOLCS lowered the alert level of the volcano from level 4 to level 3, citing decreasing activity observed over the prior four days. The state agency noted the absence of ash ejections and relative weakness of steam emissions and the gradual decrease in sulfur dioxide emissions from a maximum of 8,993 tonnes per day to 2,621 tonnes per day. 7,218 families within the 7–8 km danger zones returned to their homes, while 2,728 families residing in the 4–6 km danger zone remained in the evacuation centers pending a decision to further lower the alert level.</p><br>
<p>On January 13, 2010, PHIVOLCS reduced the Alert Level from 3 to 2 due to a further reduction in the likelihood of hazardous eruption.</p><br>
<h4>Government response</h4><br>
<p>Albay governor Joey Salceda declared the disaster zone an open city area to encourage aid from external groups. Potential donors of relief goods were not required to secure clearance from the Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council, and were coordinated directly with support groups at the local government level.</p><br>
<p>The restiveness of the volcano also stimulated the tourism industry of the province. Up to 2,400 tourists per day arrived in the area in the two weeks after the volcano started erupting on December 14, filling local hotels, compared to a more modest average of 200 in the days prior. However it was reported that some tourists lured by local "guides" ignored government warnings not to venture into the 8 km danger zone. "It&#39;s a big problem. I think the first violation of the zero casualty (record) will be a dead tourist," said Salceda.</p><br>
<p>Speaking about thrill-seekers finding their way into the area, Salceda warned, "At the moment of the eruption, the local guides will have better chance of getting out. The helpless tourist will be left behind."</p><br>
<h4>International response</h4><br>
<p>Following the declaration of alert level 3 for the volcano, the United States issued an advisory cautioning its nationals from traveling to Mayon. Canada and the United Kingdom also posted advisories discouraging their nationals from visiting the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The United States government committed $100,000 in financial aid for the evacuees of Mayon. In cooperation with the Philippine government the assistance was delivered through the Philippine National Red Cross and other NGOs by USAID.</p><br>
<p>The Albay provincial government ordered the local military to add more checkpoints, place roadblocks and arrest tourists caught traveling inside the 8 km danger zone.</p><br>
<p>Power and water supply were cut off within the danger zone to further discourage residents from returning. The Commission on Human Rights allowed the use of emergency measures and gave the authorities clearance to forcibly evacuate residents who refused to leave.</p><br>
<p>When the alert level around the volcano was lowered from alert level 4 to alert level 3 on January 2, 2010, the Albay provincial government ordered a decampment of some 47,000 displaced residents from the evacuation centers. Power and water supply in the danger zones were restored. Military vehicles were used to transport the evacuees back to their homes, while food supplies and temporary employment through the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) were provided to the heads of each family.</p><br>
<p>As of January 3, 2010, the National Disaster Coordinating Council reported the overall cost of humanitarian aid and other assistance provided by the government and non-government organizations (NGOs) has reached over 61 million pesos since the start of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The United Nations World Food Programme (UN-WFP) delivered 20 tons of high energy biscuits to the evacuees to complement supplies provided by the DSWD, with more allocated from emergency food stocks intended for relief from the effects of the 2009 Pacific typhoon season. When the alert level was downgraded to level 3 on January 2, 2010, UN-WFP provided three days worth of food for evacuees returning to their homes who will continue to receive supplies already set aside for them.</p><br>
<h3>2013 phreatic eruption</h3><br>
<p>On May 7, 2013, at 8 a.m. (PST), the volcano produced a surprise phreatic eruption lasting 73 seconds. Ash, steam and rock were produced during this eruption. Ash clouds reached 500 meters above the volcanos summit and drifted west southwest. The event killed five climbers, of whom three were German, one was a Spaniard living in Germany, and one was a Filipino tour guide. Seven others were reported injured. The bodies of the hikers were soon located by the authorities. However, due to rugged and slippery terrain, the hikers remains were slowly transferred from Camp 2 to Camp 1, the site of the rescue operations at the foot of the volcano. According to Dr. Butch Rivera of Bicol Regional Training and Teaching Hospital, the hikers died due to trauma in their bodies, and suffocation. Authorities were also able to rescue a Thai national who was unable to walk due to fatigue and had suffered a broken arm and burns on the neck and back.</p><br>
<p>Despite the eruption, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology stated that the alert level would remain at 0. and no evacuation was being planned.</p><br>
<h4>International response</h4><br>
<p>The government of the United Kingdom advised its nationals to follow the advisories given by the local authorities, and respect the 6 km permanent danger zone. The advisory was given a day after the May 7, 2013 phreatic explosion.</p><br>
<h3>2014 renewed activity</h3><br>
<p>On August 12, 2014, a new 30m-50m high lava dome appeared in the summit crater. This event was preceded by inflations of the volcano (measured by precise leveling, tilt data, and GPS), and increases in sulphur dioxide gas emissions.</p><br>
<p>On September 14, 2014, rockfall events at the southeastern rim of the crater and heightened seismic activity caused PHIVOLCS to increase the alert level for Mayon from 2 to 3, which indicates relatively high unrest with magma at the crater, and that hazardous eruption is possible within weeks. The rockfalls and visible incandescence of the crater from molten lava and hot volcanic gas both indicated a possible incipient breaching of the growing summit lava dome.</p><br>
<p>On September 15, 2014, NASAs Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) detected thermal anomalies near Mayons summit, consistent with magma at the surface.</p><br>
<p>On September 16, 2014, provincial governor Joey Salceda said that the government would begin to "fast-track the preparation to evacuate 12,000 families in the 6–8 km extended danger zone", and soldiers would enforce the no-go areas.</p><br>
<p>On September 18, 2014, PHIVOLCS reported 142 VT earthquake events and 251 rockfall events. White steam plumes drifted to the south-southwest and rain clouds covered the summit. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission was measured at an 757 tonnes after a peak of 2,360 tonnes on September 6. Ground deformation (precise leveling and tilt meters) during the 3rd week of August 2014 recorded edifice inflation.</p><br>
<h2>Deadly lahars</h2><br>
<p>Following the eruption of November 30, 2006, strong rainfall which accompanied Typhoon Durian produced lahars from the volcanic ash and boulders of the last eruption killing at least 1,266 people. The precise figure may never be known since many people were buried under the mudslides. A large portion of the village of Padang (an outer suburb of Legazpi City) was covered in mud up to the houses&#39; roofs. Students from Aquinas University in Barangay Rawis, also in Legazpi, were among those killed as mudslides engulfed their dormitory. Central Legazpi escaped the mudslide but suffered from severe flooding and power cuts.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the town of Daraga were also devastated, including the Cagsawa area, where the ruins from the eruption of 1814 were partially buried once again. Large areas of Guinobatan, Albay were destroyed, particularly Barangay Maipon.</p><br>
<p>Similar post-eruption lahar occurred in October 1766, months after the July eruption of that year. The heavy rainfall also accompanying a violent typhoon carried down disintegrated fragmental ejecta, burying plantations and whole villages. In 1825, the event was repeated in Cagsawa killing 1,500 people.</p><br>
<h2>Monitoring Mayon</h2><br>
<p>Mayon is the most active volcano in the Philippines, and its activity is regularly monitored by PHIVOLCS from their provincial headquarters on Ligñon Hill, about 12 km SSE from the summit.</p><br>
<p>Three telemetric units are installed on Mayon&#39;s slopes, which send information to the seven seismometers in different locations around the volcano. These instruments relay data to the Ligñon Hill observatory and the PHIVOLCS central headquarters on the University of the Philippines Diliman campus.</p><br>
<p>PHIVOLCS also deploys electronic distance meters (EDMs), precise leveling benchmarks, and portable fly spectrometers to monitor the volcano&#39;s daily activity.</p><br>
<p>Sept 12, 2016 The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Phivolcs) has warned of a possible "big" Mayon eruption in the coming days.</p><br>
<h2>Philippine Currency</h2><br>
<p>Mayon has been featured as part of the design of Philippine money.</p><br>
<p>Mount Apo is a large solfataric, potentially active stratovolcano in the island of Mindanao, Philippines. With an elevation of 2,954 m above sea level, it is the highest mountain in the Philippine Archipelago and is located between Davao City and Davao del Sur province in Region XI and Cotabato province in Region XII. The peak overlooks Davao City 45 km to the northeast, Digos City 25 km to the southeast, and Kidapawan City 20 km to the west.</p><br>
<p>The first two attempts to reach Mt. Apo’s summit ended in failure: that of Jose Oyanguren (1852) and Señor Real (1870). The first recorded successful expedition was led by Don Joaquin Rajal in October 10, 1880. Prior to the climb, Rajal had to secure the permission of the Bagobo chieftain, Datu Manig. It is said that the Datu demanded that human sacrifice be made to please the god Mandarangan. Fortunately, the datu agreed to waive this demand, and the climb commenced on October 6, 1880, succeeding five days later. Since then, numerous expeditions followed. These and more are described in colorful narrations by Fr. Miguel Bernad, S.J.</p><br>
<p>On May 9, 1936, Mount Apo was declared a national park by President Manuel L. Quezon.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Apo is said to be named after a nobleman named Apong, who was killed while mediating the battle between two suitors of his daughter Saribu. Another proposed origin of the name is from the word Apo itself, which in Filipino tongues means “master” or “grandchild”.</p><br>
<p>In late March-April 2016, due to the extreme effects of El Niño, massive patches of forest fires and Bushfires appeared on the slopes of the mountain, causing hikers on the mountain to halt their ascent. Tourism in the region was threatened due to a massive haze engulfing the slopes of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<h3>Mount Apo Natural Park</h3><br>
<p>On May 9, 1936, Mount Apo was declared a national park with Proclamation No. 59 by President Manuel L. Quezon, followed by Proclamation No. 35 of May 8, 1966, then Proclamation No. 882 of September 24, 1996. On February 3, 2004, the approval of Republic Act No. 9237 established Mount Apo as a protected area under the category of natural park with an area of 54,974.87 hectare; with two peripheral areas of 2,571.73 hectare and 6,506.40 hectare as buffer zones, provided for its management and for other purposes.</p><br>
<p>Although a declared a Natural Park, the current climbing trails are littered with rubbish by irresponsible climbers, opening paths for soil erosion across the already denuded mountain sides. Some mountain and social climbing groups conduct climbs after the Holy Week/Easter, the peak climbing season, to clean the affected areas.</p><br>
<h3>UNESCO World Heritage list</h3><br>
<p>The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) submitted Mount Apo on December 12, 2009 for inclusion in the UNESCO world heritage list. The mountain is considered by DENR as the center of endemism in Mindanao. It has one of the highest land-based biological diversity in terms of flora and fauna per unit area. It has three distinct forest formations, from lowland tropical rainforest, to mid-mountain forests, and finally to high mountain forests.</p><br>
<p>A portion of the eastern slopes are also within the scope of the UNESCO Hydrology Environment Life and Policy (HELP) Network. The Davao HELP Network is focused on building collaboration among watershed stakeholders.</p><br>
<p>In March 2015, it was taken out from the UNESCO List of Tentative Sites due to the dramatic changes (such as logging, intrusion of companies and urban and agricultural landscape, exploitation, and poaching, among others) it experienced which does not constitute the UNESCO documents that describes the park. Better conservation and a change in the content of documents was recommended by UNESCO.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Mt. Apo generally enjoys tropical rainy climate. It falls under the Type IV climate under the modified corona&#39;s classification wherein rainfall is relatively distributed throughout the year. Mean monthly temperature ranges from a low 26.4 &deg;C during January to 27.9 &deg;C during April. Monthly relative humidity ranges from 78% during March and April and 82% during June and July. It reaches -6 celsius in February and January</p><br>
<h3>Flora and fauna</h3><br>
<p>The mountain is home to over 272 bird species, 111 of which are endemic to the area. It is also home to one of the world&#39;s largest eagles, the critically endangered Philippine eagle, which is the country’s national bird.</p><br>
<h3>Bodies of water</h3><br>
<p>Lakes - There are four major lakes in Mt. Apo. Popular of these are Lake Agco, used to be called "The Blue Lake" and Lake Venado, a well-known mountaineers camping site and a stopover towards the peak. Lake Macadac and Lake Jordan are found in the summit grassland.</p><br>
<p>Rivers - Mt. Apo has 19 major rivers and 21 creeks draining its 8 major watersheds (PASAlist.1992). Out of the 19 major rivers, only two has studies as reported by SEA-BMB consultants for the Mt. Apo Geothermal Project Environmental Impact Assessment 1991. According to the report, there are two river ecosystems draining the geothermal site namely: (1) Marbel-Matingao river ecosystem- characterized by narrower river channels at highly elevated areas, much faster water flow, clearer water and rock boulder-rich water beds. The aquatic organisms in the area have expectedly lower biological productivity and species diversity. The report also concluded that this river ecosystem provides much less economic and commercial value for its biological production. The study identified 12 species of fish caught in the area; (2) Kabacan River- Pulangi River ecosystem- characterized by a much wider channels at flat areas, relatively much slower water flow, highly turbid waters and sandy mud river beds.</p><br>
<p>Waterfall - The Tudaya Falls Davao del Sur, in Mindanao in the Philippines. At 100 metres, it is the tallest waterfall in Mt. Apo Natural Park. This waterfall flows into the Sibulan River, which flows to the Davao Gulf.</p><br>
<h3>Biological features</h3><br>
<p>Grasslands - The grasslands are characterized by the dominance of Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) and Saccharum spontaneum. Other grasses and ferns also thrive, especially along banks of creeks, streams, and rivers and on steep slopes.</p><br>
<h2>Geothermal energy</h2><br>
<p>The Mt. Apo 1 and Mt. Apo 2 geothermal plants, each possess a rated capacity of 54.24 megawatts.</p><br>
<p>Owned and operated by Energy Development Corporation (EDC) the power plants were commissioned in February 1997 (Mt. Apo 1) and June 1999 (Mt. Apo 2) respectively, under a build-operate owner contract arrangement. Located in Barangay Ilomavis, Kidapawan City, North Cotabato is the Mindanao Geothermal Production Field with a power output of 108.48 MW, currently the only power plant of its kind in Mindanao.</p><br>
<p>The Philippine National Oil Company geothermal plant supplies electricity to Kidapawan and its neighboring provinces, its completion boosted the city&#39;s economy.</p><br>
<h2>Watershed and hydroelectric plants</h2><br>
<p>The Tudaya Hydropower Plants, located near the foot of Mount Apo on the Davao side (Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur), is composed of two run-of-river type plants that will contribute to the energy needs of Mindanao by early 2014.</p><br>
<p>The Sibulan Hydroelectric Power Plants</p><br>
<p>have been generating 42.5 MW of clean and renewable energy for Davao since 2010. The first of two cascading plants, Sibulan A Hydro produces 16.5 MW and the water it utilizes is re-used in the Sibulan B Hydro to produce 26 MW.</p><br>
<p>Sibulan A was completed and commissioned on December 26, 2010. Local residents who are mainly engaged in abaca and fruit farming have since benefited from the use of 44 km of farm-to-market roads which were developed as access to the plants.</p><br>
<h2>Indigenous peoples</h2><br>
<p>Six indigenous groups, the Manobos, Bagobo, Ubos, Atas, K’Iagans and Tagacaolo, live in the area of Mount Apo. They consider the mountain to be sacred ground and a place of worship. A number of genealogies of Lumad leaders in South Central Mindanao trace their roots to Mount Apo. For the Lumads, the term "Apo" was coined from the name of their great grandparent Apo Sandawa.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking activity</h2><br>
<p>At 2,954 m, Mount Apo is the highest mountain & volcano in the Philippines. It is one of the country&#39;s most popular climbing destinations.</p><br>
<p>Several trails lead to the summit, coming from North Cotabato and Davao provinces. Arguably the easiest route to the National Park is through Kidapawan with an average hike taking 3–4 days roundtrip. In the classification system used by local popular mountaineering website PinoyMountaineer.com, the difficulty of the hike is 7 out of 9. Various sights along the trail include Lake Venado, the highest lake in the Philippines, the solfataras and the old crater near its summit.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrological features</h2><br>
<p>Mount Apo is a headwaters catchment area of several major river systems like Marble River, Matingaw River, connecting with the Kabacan River, part of the Pulangi River, a major tributary of the Mindanao River, the Tudaya Falls, Sibulan River, and Digos River, which flows into Davao Gulf.</p><br>
<p>Mount Korab  is the fourth highest peak in the entire Balkan Peninsula, standing at 2,764 m. The summit of the Korab mountain range in the Albanian-Macedonian border, Korab is the highest peak of Albania and the Republic of Macedonia and also one of only two summits in Europe, which are the highest point for more than one country. The Korab is also the 18th most prominent mountain peak in the European continent.</p><br>
<p>Korab is situated within the Korab-Koritnik Nature Park. It is noted for its rich flora, including species such as Bosnian pine, European beech, Coppicing forest, and Alder forest.</p><br>
<p>The peak lies adjacent to the Šar Mountains. Mount Korab is also pictured in the coat of arms of the Republic of Macedonia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Korab range stretches over 40 km in a north-south direction between the lower section of the Black Drin and its tributary Radika. It is located around the border triangle of Albania, Macedonia and Kosovo, southwest of the mountain Šar Mountains (Albanian: Sharr Mountains).</p><br>
<p>The peak is a very rugged mountain massif and consists mainly of shale and limestone of the Paleozoic period with block structures, as well as severely damaged gypsum rocks of Permo Triassic. On the west side, the mountain falls steeply over rock walls. The north side consists of craggy rocks. A kind of double peak, that of Korab II 2,756 m is about 150 m northwest of the peak within Albanian territory. On the same ridge are two other peaks rising over 2,700 m such as Shulani i Radomires and Korab III. The southeast, stretching from a few rock bands broken meadows to the summit is accessed by very simply, and occasionally by shepherds with their flocks of sheep.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the Korab peak, there are several other, almost equally high elevations. North of the twin peaks are numerous other nameless, almost equally high rock towers. The peak located about 2 km southwest, Korab-gate (Albanian: Maja e Portës së Korabit; Macedonian: Korapska Mala vrata) reaches 2,727 m. A few hundred yards south is another peak Maja e Moravës, which is 2,718 m, with only a little lower.</p><br>
<p>The peaks are occasionally ruptured by radial tectonics in the shape of blocks that end in the Radika Valley on the Republic of Macedonian side. These blocks occasionally have steep slopes that reach up to 500 m. In its highest part, above 2,000 m, the climate is alpine and includes some alpine flora elements.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is home to spectacular Korab Falls in the upper valley of the Dlaboka River. During spring time, the waterfall reaches a height of over 130 meters, which makes it the highest in Macedonia. The state border intersects the higher peak, Great Korab.</p><br>
<p>Ascent from the Macedonian side involves entering the Republic of Macedonian-Albanian boundary area, for which a special permit is required from the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Macedonia, although people regularly track on Korab without it.</p><br>
<p>The two main passes in the Korab ridge include the Little Korab Gate 2,465 m and Big Korab Gate</p><br>
<p>2,062 m.</p><br>
<p>The mountain has a number of sub-peaks that are higher than 2000 metres. These include Korab II (unnamed peak) 2,756 m, Korab III (unnamed peak) 2,724 m, Korab Gates (peak) 2,727 m, Maja e Moravës 2,718 m, Shulani i Radomirës 2,716 m and Small Korab 2,683 m.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>There are no formal restrictions on climbing the mountain from the Albanian side. The area is now safer and more stable than it has been in recent times. It is possible to drive as far as the local village of Radomira, but the local infrastructure is generally not good. A four-wheel drive vehicle with high clearance may be required. There are no accurate and up to date maps, local signposting is poor, and hikers may have to overcome the additional problem of aggressive dogs. An international expedition to climb Mount Korab is organized each September by the mountain club PSD "Korab" in Skopje.</p><br>
<p>Davao Gulf is a gulf situated in the southeastern portion of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has an area of 308,000 hectares. Davao Gulf cuts into the island of Mindanao from Philippine Sea. It is surrounded by all five provinces in the Davao Region. The largest island in the gulf is Samal Island. Davao City, on the gulf&#39;s west coast, is the largest and busiest port on the gulf. The Bagobo, a tribe known in Davao, are living in the Davao Gulf. With the thrust of Davao City towards Information Technology and IT-Enabled Services , Davao City and the Davao Gulf area have also earned the moniker Silicon Gulf.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The gulf water is regarded as one of the most diverse cetacean habitats in the nation, being home for at least 10 species of toothed whales and dolphins such as Sperm Whales and Beaked Whales. Also Whale Sharks are seen frequently. Furthermore, several ecological phenomena have been observed in the Davao Gulf such as a previously unknown predator of the Crown-of-Thorns starfish, new species records and species discoveries underlining the uniqueness of the marine resources in the Davao Gulf.</p><br>
